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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Paul  Popenoe 


West  India  Gardens 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/fertilityoflandsOOrobeiala 


The  Plural  Science  Scries 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 


THE    FERTILITY    OF    THE    LAND 


•T>&&&- 


THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE 
LAND 


A    SUMMARY    SKETCH    OF    THE    RELATIONSHIP   OF 

FARM -PRACTICE    TO   THE    MAINTAINING   AND 

INCREASING   OF   THE   PRODUCTIVITY 

OF   THE    SOIL. 


ISAAC    PHILLIPS    ROBERTS 

Director  and  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 

and  Piofessor  of  Agriculture  in  the 

Cornell  University 


THIRTEENTH  EDITION 


THE     M  ACM  ILL  AN     COMPANY 

LONDON:    MAOMILLAN   &   CO.    Ltd. 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1897 
By  I.  P.  ROBERTS 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  April,  189". 

Reprinted  with  corrections  February,  1898,  July,  1899, 

April,  1900,  July,  1901,  January,  1903,  February.  1904,  May,  1905. 

June,  1906,  October.  1907,  July,  1909,  January.  1911.  March,  1913 


g^ount   jpiraaant  iPrees 

J.  Horace  McFarlaxd  Company 
HARRisBTRd  -  Pennsylvania 


1313 


PREFACE  BY   THE   EDITOR. 

If  a  man  has  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
as  a  teacher  of  agriculture  and  an  experimenter,  and 
has  been  a  successful  farmer  at  the  same  time,  and 
has  had  the  advantage  of  much  travel,  his  opinions 
upon  farm  methods  should  be  invaluable  to  his  fel- 
lows. If,  in  addition  to  all  this,  he  has  had  a  philo- 
sophic turn  of  mind,  and  has  persistently  inquired  into 
the  reasons  and  results  of  all  that  he  has  seen,  it 
would  seem  to  be  nothing  less  than  a  public  misfor- 
tune if  he  should  fail  to  leave  some  of  his  wisdom  in 
permanent  and  consecutive  form.  At  any  rate,  this 
has  been  my  chief  thought  in  persuading  Professor 
Roberts  to  write  this  book.  The  book  is,  therefore, 
a  personal  one.  It  sets  forth  the  .author's  philosophy 
of  the  means  of  maintaining  the  productivity  of  the 
land  ;  and  since  the  productive  power  of  the  land  is 
the  first  and  fundamental  consideration  in  farming, 
it  must  follow  that  this  book  comes  as  near  to  being 
a  treatise  on  agriculture  as  any  single  volume  can 
be.  It  appeals  to  me  with  especial  force,  because  it 
so   well    combines  the    current    ideals  of   science    with 

(v) 


vi  Preface. 

the  philosophy  of  farm -practice.  It  is  the  ripened 
judgment  of  the  wisest  farmer  whom  I  have  known. 
I  confess  that  I  have  looked  with  some  appre- 
hension upon  the  rapid  diffusion  of  experimental 
science  of  recent  years,  for  there  is  danger  that  this 
knowledge  may  overshadow  the  importance  of  accus- 
tomed farm -practice,  and  lead  the  farmer  to  demand 
specific  rules  for  each  perplexity  and  to  depend  upon 
the  Experiment  Station  and  the  teacher  for  his  farm- 
ing. The  most  important  mission  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  at  the  present  time,  is  to  lead  the  farmer  to 
understand  more  fully  the  underlying  reasons  for  the 
common  things  which  he  does.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  very  few  farmers  really  know  the  philosophy 
of  plowing.  The  Experiment  Station  can,  for  the 
most  part,  work  out  only  general  principles  and 
methods,  and  the  farmer  must  modify  and  apply 
them  as  best  he  can ;  for  each  farm  is  a  local 
problem,  and  each  farmer  must  be  an  experimenter. 
When  this  conception  of  the  Experiment  Station 
work  is  fully  apprehended,  the  farmer  should  become 
more  self-dependent ;  and  the  necessity  of  working 
out  a  philosophy  of  his  own,  and  of  giving  more 
careful  attention  to  every  detail  of  the  tilling  of  the 
land  and  the  husbanding  of  his  home  resources,  will 
become  more  and  more  apparent.  The  farmer  must 
approach  the   problem  of   maintaining  the  productive 


Preface.  vii 

ness  of  his  land  from  several  directions,  for  the 
subject  is  a  large  one.  He  can  use  Kiug's  book 
on  "  The  Soil"  in  considering  it  from  the  side 
of  rational  science,  and  the  present  volume  will  aid 
nim  in   approaching  it  from   the  farm  side. 

There  are  those  who  look  for  the  time  when 
agriculture  shall  be  reduced  to  a  rigid  science,  which 
shall  be  governed  by  a  well-defined  series  of  rules 
and  precepts.  But  that  time  will  never  come  !  Hap- 
pily, there  is  one  vocation  in  which  men  engage 
which  can  never  be  bounded  by  methods  or  prece- 
dents, one  occupation  which  is  as  elastic  and  un- 
trammeled  and  unconventional  as  the  blowing  of  the 
wind,  the  falling  of  the  rain,  and  the  singing  of  the 
birds  !  The  fact  is  that  there  is  no  science  of  agri- 
culture. The  occupation  is  a  business  and  an  art 
founded  upon  the  inter- play  of  many  sciences,  of 
which  chemistry,  botany,  physiology,  physics  and  cli- 
matology are  chief ;  and  these  and  all  the  business 
methods  are  coordinated  by  good  judgment  and  skilful 
management.  There  can  be  no  text -book  of  agricul- 
ture, as  there  can  be  of  botany  or  physics.  Many  of 
the  so-called  manuals  of  agriculture  are  really  agri- 
cultural chemistries  ;  they  treat  only  one  subject  out 
of  the  score  or  more  which  may  be  considered  to  be 
fundamental.  Chemical  analysis  —  although  of  the 
greatest    value    in    given    instances — cannot    tell    what 


▼iii  Preface. 

the   land  will   produce  :   it  can   only  tell  what   it  con- 
tains. 

Farm -practice,  therefore,  is  not  the  less  important 
because  we  now  have  so  much  new  light  from  sci- 
ence. It  is  a  common  saying  that  farmers  are  adher- 
ing too  closely  to  the  ways  of  their  fathers,  and  the 
statement  is  undoubtedly  true ;  and  yet  it  must  be 
remembered  that  we  need  not  so  much  a  revolution 
of  farm  -  practice  as  we  do  an  improvement  of  it. 
There  is  danger  that  in  the  bewilderment  of  the  mul- 
titude of  new  facts,  we  forget  fundamental  reasons 
and  the  importance  of  understanding  the  common 
things.  The  farmer  should  be  a  philosopher.  I  like 
to  think  of  him  as  having  been  so  thorough  and 
timely  and  resourceful  with  his  work,  that  he  can  sit 
on  the  fence  at  least  one  day  in  the  week  and  enjoy 
the  fun  of  seeing  things  grow. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

Coenell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  March  1,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 


A  Chat  with  the  Young  Farmer 


PAGER 

1-8 


CHAPTER    I. 

An  Inventory  of  the  Land 9-33 

Definitions  of  fertility  and  plant-food— Response  to  till- 
age—Complexity of   tha  problem. 

The  native  plant-food  in  the  soil.  Analyses  of  rep- 
resentative soils  — Availability  of  plant-food  — Valuation  of 
the  native  plant-foods— Leaching        .....       11-20 

The  food  required  by  plants.  Constituents  of  a 
wheat  crop  — The  ash  of  plants— Value  of  soil  analyses- 
Composition  of  a  cotton  crop  — Orchards  — Maize  and  other 
cereals 20-29 

Extraneous  sources  of  plant-food.  Insolubility  of 
soil  materials  —  Nitrogen  in  rainfall  —  Barn  manures- 
Clovers— Mixed  husbandry— Causes  of  small  yields     .  .       29-33 


CHAPTER    II. 


THfe  Evolution  of  the  Plow 34-60 

Importance  of  the  subject  — Definitions. 

Development  of  the  plow  in  the  old  world.  Plow 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  — East  Indian  plow— Egyptian 
plow— Early  French  and  Dutch  plows— English  inven- 
tions—Jethro  Tull's  ideas  — Scotch  plows  — The  English 
idea  of  plowing  ........       34-43 


Ux) 


Contents. 


Development  of  the  plow  in  America.  An  early 
Yankee  plow  — Thomas  Jefferson  —  Evolution  of  the  cast- 
iron  plow— The  American  idea  of  plowing— Interchange- 
able parts  — Webster's  and  Burrell's  plows  — The  subsoil 
plow    ....  ...... 

Prairie  plows.  The  problem  on  the  prairies— Prairie- 
breakers— The  glass  plow   ....... 

Development  of  contemporaneous  plows.  Chilled 
plows— Gang-plows  — The  modern  light  plows  — The  impor- 
tance of  the  plow        ........ 


44-52 


52-54 


54-60 


CHAPTER    III. 


Tilling  the  Land 61-107 

Tilling  is  the  fundamental  labor— The  work  of   Tull. 

General  remarks  on  plowing.  Why  do  we  plow?— 
Pulverizing  the  soil  — The  character  of  the  furrow— Sur- 
face tillage  influenced  by  plowing— Sowing  without  plow- 
ing—More than  one  plowing  sometimes  necessary       .         .      62-72 

Some  specific  results  of  plowing.  Effect  on  soil 
moisture  —  Puddling  and  percolation  — Subsoiling— The  im- 
portance of  compacting  the  land  — Deep  plowing.  —  Drying 
and  warming  the  land  — Forming  a  hard-pan  — Storage 
capacity  of  the  soil— Deep  and  shallow  soil-resorvoirs— 
Undt rdraining. — Ae'ration  promoted  by  plowing  —  Soil  may 
be  too  compact  or  too  open— Importance  of  aeration.— 
Nitrification  promoted  by  plowing  —  Nitrogen  moat  essen- 
tial early  in  the  life  of  the  plant.  —  Physical  conditions 
improved  by  plowing  —  Importance  of  well-pulverized  soil- 
Roots  should  go  deep.  —  Plowing  to  bring  fertility  to  the 
surface  —  Upward  movement  of  plant-food  — Amelioration 
of  alkali  lands  —  Root-pruning.  —  Ploiving  to  bury  trash  — 
Disposing  of  weeds  and  vegetable  matter  ....      72-87 

Times  and  methods  of  plowing.  When  to  plow— Fall 
plowig  — Wire-worms  —  Spring  plowing.  —  When  not  to 
p low—  Plowing  when  too  wet  or  too  dry.  —  Hoic  to  plow  — 
The  shape  of  the  "lands"— Plowing  for  surface  drain- 
age—Deep    and     shallow     plowing— Arrangement     of     the 


Contents. 


XI 


driving  lines   for  three  horses  — The  plowing  team.— Live 
of  draft  in  plows  —  The   traces   and  the  evener— Figures 

of  draft 87-99 

Surface  tillage.  The  seed-bed  — Reasons  for  tilling 
the  surface— Experience  in  California  orchards  — Tilling 
to  destroy  weeds  — The  tools— Inter-tillage.  —  Implements 
for  surface  tilling  —  The  roller  —  Plankers  —  Harrows  — 
Spring-toothed  harrows  — The  Acme  harrow  type.  —  Cu Ui- 
vators  are  of  numberless  patterns  —  The  form  of  the 
blades  — Inter-tillage  for  the  cereals  —  Seeding  with  an 
associate  crop    .........       99-107 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Conservation  of  Moisture 108-119 

Necessity  of  water  to  transport  plant-foods— The  philos- 
ophy of  moisture-storage  and  the  earth-mulch  — Shading 
the  soil  — Mulching— The  herbage-cover  of  grass  lands- 
Humus— Details  of  the  earth -mulch  — Compaction  of  the 
sub-surface  soil— Puddling— Depth  of  the  earth-mulch  — 
Cover  crops  — Late  tillage— Potato  culture— Conserving 
moisture  in  sowed  crops  — Root  habits  of  the  plants. 


CHAPTER    V. 


Irrigation  and  Drainage 120-130 

Relation  of  the  chapter  to  the  previous  discussions. 

Irrigation.  A  problem  of  engineering— Irrigation  in 
dry  and  in  humid  climates  — The  practice  to  be  largely 
governed  by  the  price  of  the  product  — Work  in  tho  upper 
Mississippi  valley— What  are  deserts?  — Some  areas  not 
worth  irrigating 120-126 

Drainage.  Philosophy  of  under-draining— Ammonia 
from  rain-fall  — Improving  the  physical  characteristics  of 
soil -Method  of  laying  tiles  127-130 


Xll 


Contents. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

Farm  Manures 

Definitions. 

General  considerations  respecting  the  use  op 
manures.  They  are  unbalanced  — Methods  of  compari- 
son—Value of  manures  depends  in  part  upon  the  plants  — 
Demands  made  by  wheat— Composition  of  manures- 
Availability  of  the  elements  in  farm  manures— Application 
of  manures  to  different  types  of  land  — Conclusions  re- 
specting the  use  and  value  of  farm  manures 

Factors  which  determine  the  quality  of  farm 
manures.  That  from  young  animals  least  valuable- 
Varies  with  the  species  of  animal  — Also  with  the  use  to 
which  the  animal  is  put— Manure  of  mature  animals  — 
What  the  animal  takes  from  the  food— Extent  of  carbon- 
aceous matter— Potential  energy  of  foods  — Kinds  of  food 
influence  the  kind  of  manure— Individuality  of  the  ani- 
mal—The water  drunk  influences  manure— The  bedding— 
The  bedding  may  injure  the  manure  .... 


PAGC8 

131-148 


1.12-141 


141-148 


CHAPTER    VII. 


Manures  Produced  by  Various  Animals 

Manures  vs.  fertilizers  — Computed  values  of  manures. 
a  discussion  of  the  manure  of  cattle 
Studies  of  horse  manure     . 
Livery  stable  manure 
di8cussion  of  sheep  excrements 
Manure  and  excrements  of  swine 
Analyses  of  the  excrement  of  fowls 
Miscellaneous  statistics  of  animal  manures 


149-182 

152-162 
162-166 
166-167 
167-170 
171-174 
174-180 
180-182 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
The  Waste  of  Manures    . 


.  183-187 


Contents.  xiii 

CHAPTER  IX. 

PAGES 

The    Care,    Preservation    and   Application    of    Ma- 
nures      188-213 

Importance  of  saving  manures. 

LOSS  IN  MANURES  DUE  TO  WEATHERING  AND  EXPO- 
SURE. Importance  of  housing  manures  —  Liquid  ma- 
nures—The open  barnyard  —  Statistics  of  loss  in  ma- 
nures—.The  relation  of  the  manure  to  the  food  consumed.     188-2(11 

Covered  manure  yards.  The  present  conditions- 
Importance  of  cover  for  both  animals  and  manure- 
Description  and  pictures  of  manure  sheds         .  .  .     201-207 

The  application  of  manures.  Why  manures  may 
be  applied  to  land  — Fall  and  spring  applications  — Place 
of  manures  in  the  rotation  — Applications  to  orchards  — 
Too  liberal  use  of  manures  — Manure  on  clay  and  grass 
lands  — Spreading  manures  ......     207-21;! 


CHAPTER    X. 

Nitrogen  and  Nitrification 214-24K 

How  to  detect  the  presence  of  much  nitrogen— Po- 
tential nitrogen  is  abundant  — Nitrogen  made  useful  by 
tillage  — Nitrogen  shows  in  the  vegetative  growth  — Ex- 
periments with  wheat  — Potatoes  — Maize— The  need  and 
office  of  nitrogen  — The  importance  of  direct  question- 
ing of  the  soil  and  the  crop— Sources  x>f  nitrogen  in 
farm  lands  — Cover  and  catch  crops  — Lime  and  nitrifi- 
cation—Gypsum  and  nitrification— Fallows  in  relation  to 
nitrification  — The  conditions  in  the  south. 

Prevention  of  loss  in  nitrogen  in  stable  ma- 
nures. Abstracts  of  the  opinions  of  Immendorff— Loss 
due  to  access  of  air  —  Conditions  of  f  nitrogen-loss  — 
Straw,  muck,  and  earth  to  save  nitrogen  — The  action 
of  lime,  copperas,  gypsum,  kainit  and  superphosphates- 
Experiments  in  stables  — Conclusions,  recommending  the 
use  of  dry  earth 232-244 


XIV 


Contents. 


PAGES 

Explanation  op  nitrification.  The  changes  in 
nitrogen-compounds— Nitrification  a  biological  problem- 
Conditions  favoring  the  micro-organisms  —  Liming  the 
land-Denitriflcation 244-248 


CHAPTER   XI. 


The  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash  Supply 


.  249-259 


Variation  in  amounts  and  usefulness  of  these  plant- 
foods. 

Husbanding  the  mineral  plant-foods.  How  far 
shall  tillage  and  farm-practice  be  invoked  to  utilize  the 
stores  of  native  plant-food?  — The  amount  in  the  soil  — 
Abandonment  of  wheat  farming— Cover  crops  to  utilize 
these  materials  — Lime  and  gypsum  in  relation  to  potash  . 

Comparison  of  native  soils  with  those  cultivated 
for  several  years.  Facts  from  the  Red  River  Valley- 
Depletion  of  humus,  and  therefore  of  moisture-holding 
capacity  and  of  nitrogen    ....... 


249-250 


256-259 


CHAPTER   XII. 


Commercial  Fertilizers  260-302 

Statistics  of  the  fertilizer  industry— Future  of  soil-pro- 
duction—Productivity  of  the  land  and  national  prosperity. 

General  remarks  upon  the  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. Questioning  the  soil  — Numerous  brands  of  fer- 
tilizers—State laws  — Can  farmers  afford  to  use  chemical 
fertilizers  ?  — Do  fertilizers  deplete  the  soil  ?  — Do  they 
stimulate  it  ?— Timeliness  of  application  — Complete  fer- 
tilizers             264-273 

Some  specific  advice  as  to  fertilizers  and  crops. 
High-priced  products  may  be  heavily  fertilized  — Applica- 
tions of  nitrogen  — Some  soils  respond  more  readily  than 
others  do— A  specific  example  on  Cayuga  Lake  — Fertiliz- 
ers should  be  adjacent  to  the  seed  — Effects  in  succeeding 
crops  ......  ...     273-277 


Contents. 


xv 


Estimating  the  commercial  value  op  fertilizers. 
Tables  of  trade  values  — Average  prices  actually  paid  in 
New  York  State  — Actual  value  cannot  be  determined- 
Sample  guarantees  — Insoluble  phosphoric  acid  and  its 
value— The  farmer  must  experiment  for  himself        .         .     277-281* 

Home  mixing  of  fertilizers.  Sample  mixtures,  and 
the  manner  of  computing  them  — Conclusions      .  .  .     289-297 

A   WORD   ON   THE    CHEMISTRY    OF    THE     SUPERPHOSPHATES. 

Elements  and  compounds  — The  three  calcic   phosphates- 
Treatment  with  sulfuric  acid  — Reverted  phosphoric  acid   .     298-302 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


Lime  and  Various  Amendments 


Definition  of  amendment. 


.   303-341 


Lime.  Its  source  — Historical  sketch— Cover  crops  and 
liming — Weight  of  lime  — Effect  of  hydrated  lime  on 
sandy  land  — On  clay  land  — Decomposes  organic  matter- 
Accelerates  nitrification  — How  to  slake  it  — How  to  apply 
it— Conclusions  ........      303-312 

Liming  to  correct  acidity  of  soil.  The  experiments 
at  Rhode  Island  Station  — Opinions  of  chemists  — Clover 
and  timothy  fail  on  sour  lands  — The  plants  which  are  in- 
dicative of  sour  lands— Sourness  not  confined  to  low 
lands  — Soils  containing  lime  may  still  be  sour— Pictures 
of  experimental  crops  .......     313-327 

Gypsum,  or  land  plaster.  Used  less  than  formerly — 
Variation  in  its  composition  — Why  and  when  plaster  is 
valuable  —  Use  on  alkali  lands  — Gypsum  and  moisture        .     327-33:! 

Ashes.  Composition  and  value  — Table  of  analyses  — 
Coal-ashes. 333-33."> 

Cotton-seed  hull  ashes.  Method  of  making  — Com- 
position—Value  as  a  fertilizer  ......     335-336 

River  and  swamp  mud,  and  peat.  Analyses  of— 
Value  of 336-337 


XVI 


Contents. 


PAGES 

Marl.     Constituents  of— Value  as  a  dressing  for  land  .     337-338 
Muck.     Various  analyses— Value  as  a  fertilizer  338-339 

Salt.      Its    uses    on    land  — Plants    seem    to    lack    it  — 


Conserving  moisture  by  salt— Conserving  fertility 


339-341 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


Green  Manures  and  Fallows  . 


342-355 


Clovers.  Why  clovers  are  valuable— The  root  sys- 
tem—Composition of  clovers  — They  remove  plant-food  — 
Alfalfa— Composition  of  late-sown  clover— Other  green 
manures 342-349 

Fallows.  An  ancient  custom— Benefits  derived  from 
fallowing  —  How  often  to  plow— Green  fallows  —  Short 
fallows  — Conclusions  .......     349-355 


CHAPTER   XV. 


Rotations 356-372 

Difficulty  of  determining  what  plants  need  — Different 
needs  of  different  crops  — Some  crops  need  extra  care 
whilst  young  —  Rotation  in  trees  —  Some  plants  feed 
mostly  from  the  air  —  Plants  vary  in  assimilative 
power— Comparisons  with   animals. 

Specific  directions  upon  rotations.  They  receive 
small  attention  in  America  —What  rotation  may  accom- 
plish—Influence upon  weeds— Wheat  and  clover  rota- 
tions—Rotations increase  productivity  —  Four-year  rota- 
tion—Inter-tilled  crops  followed  by  spring  cereals  — Com- 
panionships of  weeds  and  crops  —  Rotations  on  grass 
lands  — Rotation  may  economize  plant-food  —  A  rotation 
for  the  clover  root-borer— Insects  and  rotations  — Distri- 
bution of  the  work  of  the  year— A  three-year  rotation 
for  light  lands  — Long  and  short  rotations  compared  361-372 


Contents.  xvii 

Pages 

Appendix 373-403 

Authorities  cited  —  Animal  excrements  —  Animal  pro- 
ducts—Bedding materials  — Chaff,  hulls  and  shells  — Com- 
mercial plants  — Fertilizing  materials— Fruits,  leaves  and 
nuts  — Green  fodders— Hay— Leaves,  etc.,  of  vegetables- 
Mill   products  —  Roots  —  Seeds  —  Straw—  Vegetables. 

Index 405-41" 


THE   FERTILITY   OF    THE   LAND. 


A   CHAT   WITH   THE   YOUNG   FARMER. 

In  the  hurry  and  unrest  of  a  new  country,  few 
have  time  or  inclination  to  become  familiar  with 
plant  and  animal  life  as  seen  in  the  field  and  wood, 
and  fewer  still  have  looked  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  as  anything  but  a  mass  of  dirt,  the  particles 
of  which  are  to  be  avoided  or  removed  whenever 
they  offend   the  sight   or   interfere  with  comfort. 

Fill  a  flower -pot  with  the  soft,  dark  earth  and 
mold  from  the  border  of  the  wood,  and  carry  it  to 
the  student  of  entomology,  and  see  if  he  can  name 
one -half  of  the  living  forms  of  this  little  kingdom  of 
life ;  or  hand  it  to  the  botanist,  well  trained  in  the 
lower  orders  of  plants,  and  see  how  many  of  the  liv- 
ing forms  which  these  few  handfuls  of  dirt  contain 
he  can  classify.  Present  this  miniature  farm  to  the 
chemist  and  the  physicist,  and  let  them  puzzle  over 
it.  Call  in  the  farmer,  and  ask  him  what  plants  will 
thrive  best  in  it ;  or  keep  the  soil  warm  and  moist 
for  a  time,  and  have  the  gardener  say  of  the  tiny 
plants  that  appear  as  by  magic  which  are  good  and 
which  are  bad.  Mark  well  what  all  these  experts 
have  said,  and   call    in  the  orchardist   to  tell   you  how 


2  The    Fertility    of   the    Land. 

to  change  dead,  lifeless,  despised  earth  into  fruit ;  ask 
the  physiologist  to  explain  how  sodden  earth  is  trans- 
formed into  nerve  and  brain.  With  this  extended 
little  field  in  view,  choose  the  profession  of  agricul- 
ture if  you  love  rural  pursuits,  but  comprehend  fully 
that  in  doing  so  you  are  entering  upon  the  most  dif- 
ficult of  all  pursuits  :  difficult  in  ordinary  times, 
doubly  so  under  the  present  conditions,  which  have 
come  about  so  rapidly  that  they  are  almost  incom- 
prehensible. 

The  American  inherits  from  his  European  ances- 
tors an  inordinate  desire  for  landed  estates.  In  ear- 
lier days,  many  farmers  acquired  land  by  the  square 
mile,  and  all  secured  more  than  they  could  farm  well. 
The  Federal  Government  sold  at  nominal  prices,  gave 
away  and  indirectly  forced  land  upon  all  comers,  not 
even  reserving  the  hilly  timber  lands  which,  if  they 
had  been  reserved,  would  have  tempered  the  climate 
and  have  been  an  ever-present  source  of  wealth. 
The  Homestead  Act  has  not  brought  unmixed  bless- 
ings. The  whole  course  of  our  federal  policy  to- 
wards public  lands  has  tended  to  produce  soil -rob- 
bers, not  farmers.  Transportation  by  steam  power 
has  made  the  products  of  vast  inland  areas  salable, 
giving  value  to  lands  which  were  valueless,  but  the 
same  power  has  also  brought  the  products  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  South  America  into  competition  in  the 
markets   of  the  world. 

From  1861  to  1865,  vast  numbers  of  men  were 
transferred  from  the  producing  to  the  consuming 
class,  and  the  prices  of  farm  products  became  abnor- 


A    Ghat    with   the    Young    Farmer.  3 

mally  high  wheii  measured  by  an  inflated  currency. 
These  conditions  could  not  fail  to  mislead  and  dis- 
appoint many  when  the  population  and  the  currency 
were  restored  to  normal  conditions.  At  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  in  addition  to  a  vast  influx  of  for- 
eigners, there  were  added  to  the  farming  community 
many  soldiers  who,  in  the  high  prices,  saw  quick 
and  large  returns  from  the  rich  lands  which  had  by 
this  time  been  opened  to  settlers  by  the  construction 
of  extended  systems  of  railway.  During  the  third 
quarter  of  the  century  inventive  genius  so  improved 
the  appliances  of  agriculture  as  to  quadruple  the  pro- 
ductive   power  of   each   farmer. 

From  1870  to  1880,  the  percentage  increase  of 
new  farms  was  50.71  per  cent,  while  the  percentage 
of  increase  of  population  was  30.8  per  cent.  From 
1880  to  1890,  the  increase  was  but  13.86  per  cent, 
but  the  increase  of  population  was  24.86  per  cent. 
This  shows  that,  for  a  time,  the  percentage  increase 
of  farms  vastly  outran  the  percentage  increase  of 
population.  It  also  shows  that  the  conditions  pre*- 
vailing  before  1880  are  being  so  rapidly  reversed 
that  the  percentage  increase  in  population  may  out- 
run that  of  farms  far  enough  to  greatly  improve 
the  home  markets  of  many  farm  products  in  the 
near  future.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  farmer  is  wise 
who  adjusts  himself  quickly  to  present  conditions,  so 
unlike  those  of  his  father.  To  do  this,  he  must  see 
clearly  and  think  straight ;  he  must  have  good  ex- 
ecutive ability,  as  well  as  training  and  practice  in 
well-defined    business   methods.      To   see   clearly,    the 


4  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

eye  must  be  trained  to  take  in  a  multitude  of  ob- 
jects quickly,  to  sort,  compare  and  photograph  on 
the  sensitive  brain  those  which  are  worth  preserv- 
ing. To  think  straight,  many  scientific  ficts,  or 
items  of  knowledge,  arranged  in  order,  must  be  ac- 
quired, and  these  can  be  secured  only  by  long,  pains- 
taking effort. 

But  to  know  is  not  enough  ;  the  ability  to  exe- 
cute must  be  joined  to  knowledge,  and  executive 
skill  is  acquired  in  its  highest  form  only  by  the 
direction  and  management  of  large  affairs.  It  can- 
not be  learned  in  the  class-room,  nor  formulated 
in  a  text -book,  and  it  is  seldom  learned  by  the  farm 
boy  because  of  want  of  opportunity ;  hence  the  les- 
sons of  the  beginner  are  usually  manifold,  the  tuition 
for  the  first  term  high,  and  the  whole  is  paid  for 
from  his  own  resources,  while  young  teachers,  pro- 
fessional and  business  men  get  free  tuition  because 
they  learn  at  the  expense  of  their  employers.  What 
has  been  said  of  executive  ability  applies  with  nearly 
equal  force  to  business  ability,  the  lack  of  which  in 
city  and  in  country  is  evidenced  in  the  newspa- 
pers  by  the   word    "assignment." 

To  the  clear  eye,  to  the  intellectual  equipment,  to 
executive  ability  and  trained  business  methods,  must 
be  added  manual  dexterity.  Until  recently  the  un- 
told fertile  acres,  the  favorable  conditions,  and  the 
simple  wants  of  the  people,  have  arrested,  in  agri- 
culture, the  operation  of  that  great  law — the  survival 
of  the  fittest.  It  has  been  said  that  "anybody  can 
farm."     That  was,  but  is  not  true.      Prom  this   time 


A    Chat   with   the    Young    Farmer.  6 

on  the  struggle  in  farming  will  be  such  as  it  has 
been  in  mercantile  affairs  for  some  time.  The  unfitted 
in  agriculture  will  have  to  yield  for  the  same  reason 
that  many  little  factories,  located  off  the  lines  of 
transportation,  furnished  with  inadequate  power,  ma- 
chinery and  brains,  have  been  abandoned.  Many 
hillsides  will  be  left  to  cover  their  nakedness  with  a 
new  growth  of  hardy  vegetation.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
how  well  equipped  the  farmer  should  be,  how  fer- 
tile in  brain,  in  imagination  and  in  resources  ;  how 
full  of  wisdom,  of  enthusiasm,  of  faith  ;  how  quick 
to  see,  how  prompt  to  execute,  how  patient  to  endure 
under  difficulties,  if  the  fertility  of  his  land  is  to  be 
transformed  into  abundant  and  perfect  fruits  and 
flowers. 

This  book  is  dedicated  to  the  young  farmers  of 
America.  I  am  well  acquainted  with  you  all,  though 
you  are  not  acquainted  with  me,  and  being  acquaint- 
ed and  older  than  you  are,  I  cannot  forbear  enter- 
ing into  a  little  familiar  chat.  I  know  your  thoughts, 
your  toils  and  sorrows  and  discouragements;  your  as- 
pirations, hopes  and  joys.  I  know,  too,  what  fiber, 
endurance  and  patience  farm  work  gives  to  the 
boys  who  make  the  most  of  what  an  outdoor  life  with 
nature  has  to  offer.  I  know  how  hot  it  is  in  August 
under  the  peak  of  the  flat-roofed  barn,  how  large 
the  forkfuls  are  that  the  stalwart  pitcher  thrusts  into 
the  only  hole  where  light  and  air  can  enter.  I 
know  how  high  the  thistles  grow,  and  how  far  the 
rows  of  corn  stretch  out.  I  know,  too,  the  freedom, 
fun  and  work  of  the  old  farm  that  make  one  expand. 


6  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

enjoy  and  grow,  and  leave  no  bitter  memories.  I 
know  you  well,  my  boy, — how  green  and  brown  you 
feel  when  you  come  to  the  noisy  city,  and  how  you 
would    like    to    be    free    and    cool    again  ! 

You  have  seen  for  the  thousandth  time  the  long, 
wavy  line  of  smoke  as  the  train  goes  swinging  by, 
winding  in  and  out  among  the  hills.  Then  you 
have  longed  to  drive  that  mighty  iron  horse,  feed 
him  on  fire,  and  make  him  leap  away  in  wild  free- 
dom. Or,  perhaps  you  do  not  aspire  so  high,  and 
would  be  content  to  run  a  street -car.  You  have 
even  admired  the  bright  letters  on  the  caps  of  the 
motormen,  and  you  would  exchange  your  freedom  for 
the  blue  coats  and  shiny  buttons.  So  intently  have 
you  longed  to  have  some  great  corporation  brand 
and  number  you,  when  the  tasks  at  home  were  hard, 
that  you  have  even  planned  to  slip  down  those  huge 
porch  posts  at  night  with  your  little  bundle  on  a 
stick.  But  when  night  came  you  fell  asleep,  and  the 
morning  sun  found  you  with  thickened  blood,  temp- 
tation gone  and  courage  for  another  day.  Love 
and  inherited  pluck  saved  you.  You  were  not  ready 
for  the  city ;  you  lacked  knowledge,  seasoned  fiber 
and  judgment.  We  never  send  colts  to  the  city ; 
they  lose  their  heads  and  get  "stove  up"  by  rapid 
pace  and  rough,  hard  streets.  The  city  may  need  you 
later,  but  sidewalks  are  hot  and  hard,  while  the 
country   roads    are   soft   and  cool. 

My  scientific  reader  is  getting  anxious  to  know 
what  manner  of  book  this  is,  and  in  his  heart  he 
thinks    I   would    better    have    been    telling    you    how 


A    Chat   with    the    Young   Farmer.  7 

energy  is  changed  into  heat,  heat  into  motion,  and 
then  back  into  potential  energy  again.  But  let  him 
wait ;  you  and  I  are  to  finish  our  chat  before  we 
sit   down  to   hard   study. 

All  are  greatly  interested  in  you,  my  boy !  We 
cannot  see  how  to  get  along  without  you,  and  yet  no 
one  cares  very  much  where  you  were  born,  where 
you  live  or  how  low  you  start,  how  high  you 
climb  or  what  you  do,  so  long  as  you  do  right  and 
lead  a  useful  life.  The  world  cares  how  you  work, 
and  it  is  interested  in  the  progress  of  civilization. 
It  asks  that  every  one  of  you  start  from  just  where 
you  are,  without  grumbling  and  with  courage,  and 
climb  faithfully,  honestly  and  in  harmony  with  na- 
ture's modes  of  action,  and  the  bars  which  guard  the 
wealth  of  soil  and  the  accumulation  of  man's  toil 
will  then  fly  back  at  your  bidding.  But  wealth 
should  be  sought  not  for  the  pleasure  of  securing  and 
possessing  it,  but  as  a  means  to  higher  ends.  When 
rightly  used,  it  relieves  its  possessor  from  a  too  se- 
vere struggle  for  mere  existence,  and  gives  time  and 
opportunity  for  acquiring  useful  and  pleasurable 
knowledge,  which  in  turn  naturally  leads  to  a  fuller 
comprehension  of  the  real  and  enduring  verities 
which,  though  unseen  by  the  natural  eye,  are  all 
that  remain  at  the  close  of  life.  Financial  reserves 
and  mental  training  are  the  two  great  stepping-stones 
by  which  mankind  may  reach  a  higher  plane  of  ex- 
istence. On  this  higher  plane,  the  environment  is 
so  broad  and  grand,  the  air  so  pure  and  thoughts  so 
lofty,   that  all    work,   however   menial,   becomes    inspir- 


8  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

ing,   and   study,  however  hard,  is  pleasant  and  enno- 
bling. 

So,  my  young  farmers, —  who  should  be  the  pride 
of  the  nation  and  the  anchor  which  holds  the  thought- 
less from  drifting  towards  anarchy, — be  honest  with 
the  soil  and  with  yourself.  As  you  acquire  health, 
fiber,  purpose,  and  courage  in  mounting  the  first  step, 
do  not  stop  at  the  second  or  the  third.  Aim  high, 
for  it  has  been  written:  "Aim  at  the  sun,  and  you 
may  not  reach  it;  but  your  arrow  will  fly  far  higher 
than  if  aimed  at  an  object  on  a  level  with  yourself." 
In  the  hurry  of  this  intensely  utilitarian  age,  not 
only  may  health  and  life  be  curtailed,  but  the  better 
and  loftier  sides  of  our  nature  are  in  danger  of  be- 
coming dwarfed.  While  I  may  not  stop  to  discuss 
the  moral  bearings  of  our  profession,  yet  may  I  not 
ask  my  young  reader  to  study  what  I  have  written 
in  a  broad  and  generous  spirit,  in  order  that  the 
higher  ends  to  be  sought  by  study  of  the  utilitarian 
side  of  the  farmer's  activities,  which  is  presented  in 
the  following  chapters,    may   be   kept  in   mind! 


CHAPTER  I. 

AN  INVENTORY    OF    THE    LAND. 

The  term  fertility  is  commonly  used  in  a  special 
sense,  meaning  an  abundance  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  but  its  true  meaning  is  productive 
power.  One  acre  of  land  may  contain  thousands  of 
pounds  of  plant -food  and  yet  be  infertile,  while 
another  one  may  not  contain  a  liberal  supply  of  the 
elements  of  plant  growth,  and  yet  be  productive.  If 
land  contains  a  reasonable  amount  of  potential  plant- 
food  and  fails  to  give  satisfactory  results,  it  would 
appear  to  be  both  unbusinesslike  and  unscientific  to 
add  plant -food  rather  than  to  use  that  already  in  pos- 
session. 

Large  quantities  of  plant -food  have  been  locked  up 
in  the  fields  since  their  creation,  and  might  as  well 
not  have  been  created  for  all  the  good  which  they 
have  yet  rendered  mankind.  The  first  problem,  there- 
fore, that  presents  itself  for  solution,  is  how  best  to 
make  available  the  stores  of  potential  fertility  in  the 
soil.  Before  entering  upon  the  subjects  of  cultivation 
and  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  land,  an  inves- 
tigation should  be  made  by  questioning  the  soil,  to 
discover  approximately  the  amounts  and  availability 
of  the   plant-food  in  the  laud,  what  drafts  it  is  desir- 

(9) 


10  The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

able  to  make  upon  it,  how  it  responds  to  the  de- 
mands, and  what  is  likely  to  be  brought  to  the  land 
from  home  resources. 

Some  soils  respond  quickly  to  tillage,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  potential  plant -food  which  they  contain 
is  easily  made  available.  Most  light  and  sandy  soils 
are  of  this  character.  Others,  as  heavy  clays,  in  which 
the  abundant  elements  of  plant  life  are  likely  to  be 
tenaciously  held  in  combination  with  other  matter, 
require  skill  and  expensive  treatment  to  make  these 
elements  available.  Still  another  class  contains  del- 
eterious compounds,  which  must  be  oxidized,  or 
leached  out,  or  some  chemical  action  must  take  place 
to  change  the  compounds  into  new  forms  which  may 
be  beneficial,  or  at  least  not  injurious  to  plant  growth. 

A  careful  investigator  discovers  at  once  that  pro- 
ductivity is  not  the  simple  question  of  lack  or  abun- 
dance of  potential  plant -food  in  the  soil,  and  that, 
although  productivity  may  be  increased  by  adding  or 
withholding  one  or  more  elements,  the  problem  of 
how  to  most  economically  increase  production  is  com- 
plex. It  is  not  necessarily  solved  by  the  mere  adding 
of  fertilizing  substances  to  the  soil. 

One  writer  has  said  that  the  best  fertilizer  for 
heavy  clay  land  is  blind  drains ;  another,  that  deep 
plowing  is  the  chief  agent.  Yet  some  portions  of 
New  Jersey  were  changed,  between  1820  and  1850, 
from  a  sandy  semi-desert  into  fruitful  fields  of  wheat 
and  maize,  producing  two  or  three  times  as  much 
as  the  average  yield  of  the  state,  by  plowing 
which    was   seldom    deeper  than  four  inches.     Others, 


Agencies   Affecting    Fertility.  11 

whose  opinions  are  not  to  be  despised,  believe  that 
the  red  clover  plant  is  a  universal  panacea  for  the 
ills  of  impoverished  soils ;  while  Jethro  Tull,  that 
thoughtful  benefactor  of  English  agriculture,  held 
strongly  to  the  belief  that  frequent  and  appropriate 
horse -hoe  tillage  would  result  in  maximum  crops  for 
an    indefinite    period   of   time. 

The  modern  thought  is  to  keep  many  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  return  in  their  voidings  much  of  the  plant- 
food  removed  from  the  land.  But,  manifestly,  all 
persons  cannot  put  this  method  into  practice,  and  if 
they  could,  this  scheme  does  not  provide  for  waste 
and  toll  in  many  forms  which  must  occur  between 
the  harvesting  of  the  plants  and  the  return  to  the 
fields  of  the  residuum.  Then,  too,  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  soil,  the  moisture  stored  in  it,  its  tem- 
perature, the  amount  of  sunshine,  and  other  climatic 
influences,  all  play  such  important  parts  in  the  final 
results,  that  they  not  infrequently  become  a  primary, 
and  plant-food  a  secondary,  factor  in  production.  It 
is  needless  to  multiply  illustrations  to  show  how 
complex  and   difficult   the    question    becomes. 


THE     NATIVE     PLANT -FOOD     IN     THE     SOIL. 

The  following  tables  give  forty -nine  well  authen- 
ticated analyses  of  American  soils.  In  compiling 
them,  care  has  been  taken  to  use  no  analyses 
which  seemed  to  be  phenomenally  low  or  high,  as 
well  as  to  secure,  those  made  by  chemists  of  wide  rep- 
utation .- 


12 


The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 


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The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


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16  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

The  tables  reveal  the  fact  that  even  the  poorer 
soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant -food  for  several 
crops;  while  the  richer  soils  in  some  cases  have  suf- 
ficient for  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  crops  of 
wheat  or  maize.  The  average  of  thirty -four  analy- 
ses (Table  I.)  gives  to  each  acre  of  land,  eight  inches 
deep,  3,217  pounds  of  nitrogen,  3,936  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  17,597  pounds  of  potash,  and 
this  does  not  include  that  which  is  contained  in 
the  stones,  gravel  and  sand  of  the  soil  which  will 
not  pass  through  meshes  of  %  millimeter  (1-50  of 
an  inch),  which,  by  weathering  and  tillage,  slowly 
give  up  their   valuable   constituents. 

Some  plats  at  Cornell  University  grew,  in  1895, 
6,967.8  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  acre  of  maize  and 
stalks  in  hills,  equal  to  31,600  pounds  of  green  material 
containing  77.95  per  cent  of  water ;  and  from  other 
plats  were  harvested  26,000  pounds  per  acre  of  green 
oats  and  peas  in  1896,  containing  75  per  cent  of 
water.  Samples  of  the  soil  from  one  of  the  plats, 
which  grew  the  corn  in  1895  and  the  oats  and  peas 
in  1896,  were  taken  July  10,  1896,  to  determine  the 
proportion  which  would  pass  through  meshes  of  1-18 
of  an  inch,  the  amount  of  moisture,  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  soil,  the  composition  of  the  soil  which 
passed  through  the  sieve,  the  proportion  of  pebbles 
which  would  not  pass  through,  and  also  the  composi- 
tion of  the  rejected  portion  (the  pebbles  and  stones), 
which  was  finely  powdered  by  mechanical  means  and 
then  separately  analyzed.  The  results  obtained  are 
as   follows  : 


Composition   of  a    Gravelly    Soil.  17 

TABLE  IV. 

Analysis  of  the  samples. 

Weight  of  soil  per  acre  to  the  depth  of  one  foot 2,082.5  ton* 

"        "  the  moisture 172.       " 

Per  cent  original  matter  passed  through  the  sieve 56.79    % 

"      "          "            "       not  passed  through  the  sieve . .  41.85    " 

"       "      loss 1.36    " 

"       "      nitrogen  in  the  fine  material .13    " 

"      "      phosphoric  acid  in  the  fine  material .16    " 

"      "      potash  in  the  fine  material .51    " 

table  v. 
Amounts  calculated  per  acre  one  foot  deep. 
In  fine   material. 

Nitrogen 3,074.9  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 3,784.5    " 

Potash 12,063.      " 

In  gravel. 

Phosphoric  acid 4,009.    lbs. 

Potash 11.329.8    " 

Per  cent  phosphoric  acid  in  gravel .23  % 

"       "     potash  in  gravel .65" 

Fine  material  and  gravel. 

Nitrogen  3,074.9  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 7,793.5    " 

Potash 23.392.8    " 

How  much  of  this  was  soluble,  and  how  much 
available,  is  not  known. 

The  ten  analyses  of  subsoils  (Table  III.)  give  an 
average  of  4,069  pounds  of  nitrogen,  1,816  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  6,843  pounds  of  potash  in  the 
first  eight  inches  of  subsoil.  So  far  as  the  averages 
are  concerned  we  have  accurate  data,  but  in  making 
computations  per  acre  there  must  be  an  element  of 
error,  since  the  soil  was  not  weighed.  From  approx- 
imate  determinations,    however,    it    is    estimated    that 


18  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

ordinary  soil  weighs  per  acre,  one  foot  deep,  about 
1,800   tons,  or  1,200  tons  eight   inches  deep. 

In  trying  to  discover  how  much  plant -food  there 
is  in  an  acre,  account  must  also  be  taken  of  its 
availability.  It  is  well  known  that  no  soil  can  be 
entirely  exhausted,  yet  it  is  equally  well  known  that 
soils  may  produce  well  and  still  carry  comparatively 
little  plant -food.  In  the  preceding  tables,  there  is 
found  in  some  instances  as  high  as  8,000  pounds  of 
nitrogen  per  acre  in  eight  inches  of  surface  soil,  and 
6,000  pounds  in  the  subsoil,  and  4,000  to  5,000 
pounds  are  not  uncommon.  The  phosphoric  acid 
reaches,  in  one  instance,  10,000  pounds  in  the  surface 
soil  and  3,000  pounds  in  the  subsoil.  The  potash  in 
the  surface  soil  in  a  few  cases  (Nos.  18,  20  and  23, 
Table  I.),  is  upwards  of  40,000  pounds;  in  Table  II. 
it  rises  to  upwards  of  50,000  pounds,  or  2.08  per 
cent,  while  in  the  subsoil,  Table  III.,  it  is  21,000 
pounds.  In  the  soils  selected  (Table  I.),  the  average 
amount  of  potash  in  the  first  eight  inches  is  5% 
times  as  much  as  the  nitrogen,  and  4%  times  as 
much  as  the  phosphoric  acid.  The  average  of  the 
fifteen  analyses,  Table  II.,  shows  5  times  as  much 
potash  as  nitrogen  and  1.81  times  as  much  phosphoric 
acid  as  nitrogen. 

The  subsoil  is  also  rich  in  plant -food,  but  the 
material  is  not  so  available  as  that  in  the  surface 
soil.  By  superior  tillage,  and  by  growing  tap-rooted 
and  leguminous  plants,  vast  amounts  of  this  dormant 
plant -food,  uselessly  carried  in  the  subsoil  from  year 
to   year,  can    be  utilized ;    it  is  not  best,    however,  to 


Potential   Plant -food  per  Acre.  19 

reduce  the  amount  to  a  low  standard  in  the  surface 
soil,  since  it  is  good  economy  to  have  a  reserve  for 
unusual   conditions. 

This  vast  store  of  plant -food  is  the  farmer's  stock 
in  trade,  the  bank  upon  which  he  may  draw.  Its 
value  can  never  be  accurately  determined,  since  a 
part  of  the  plant -food  is  not  available,  and  since 
the  power  of  the  plant  to  secure  that  which  is  avail- 
able depends  upon  man}'  conditions,  such  as  the 
correct  preparation  of  the  land,  the  kind  of  crops 
raised,  the  relative  amounts  of  the  various  required 
constituents,  and  the  amount  of  moisture  present. 
The  table  is  interesting,  since  from  it  can  be  com- 
puted approximately  what  the  same  amounts  of  avail- 
able plant -food  would  cost  if  purchased  in  the  form 
of  commerical  fertilizers.  It  indicates  and  emphasizes 
how  vast  is  nature's  storehouse,  and  suggests  that 
under  good  treatment  much  of  her  treasure  may 
be  utilized  without  endangering  the  productive  power 
of  the  land.  How  much  may  best  be  utilized  is 
largely  a  financial  question,  and  can  be  solved  only 
by  the  farmer  himself.  Those  who  are  most  expert 
in  their  methods,  in  recent  years  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  increased  production  on  good  land 
is  more  cheaply  secured  by  superior  tillage  than 
by   the   purchase   of    large    quantities   of   fertilizer. 

The  average  of  forty -nine  analyses  (Tables  I.  and 
II.)  show  3,053  pounds  of  nitrogen,  4,219  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  16,317  pounds  of  potash,  and 
5%  times  as  much  potash  as  nitrogen,  and  nearly  4 
times    as    much    potash   as    phosphoric   acid,  in    eight 


20  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

inches  of  surface  soil,  per  acre.  Potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  do  not  ordinarily  leach  out  of  the  soil 
to  any  appreciable  extent,  for  whenever  they  become 
soluble  they  pass  down  but  a  little  way  before  they 
find  and  unite  with  bases  which  arrest  their  further 
progress,  while  nitrogen  tends  to  leach  out  in  the 
water  of  drainage.  While  it  is  not  good  economy  to 
apply  excessive  amounts  of  any  kinds  of  plant-food, 
it  is  doubly  wasteful  in  the  case  of  nitrogen.  Fre- 
quent and  light  applications  of  nitrogen,  one  in 
the  fall  and  one  in  the  spring,  are  more  economical 
than   infrequent  and    liberal   applications. 

THE  POOD  REQUIRED  BY  PLANTS. 

If  the  amounts  of  the  fertilizing  elements  set 
forth  in  the  tables  are  compared  with  the  compo- 
sition of  the  plants  to  be  grown,  no  certain  knowl- 
edge as  to  which  of  the  three  elements  should  be 
added  is  revealed,  since  the  one  which  appears  to 
be  the  least  might  be  the  most  available,  and  the 
one  which  is  present  in  greatest  quantity  might  be 
least  available. 

It  is  believed  that  the  averages  set  forth  in  the 
above  tables  fairly  represent  moderately  productive 
soils  outside  of  the  prairie  land  of  the  middle  west 
and  the  semi -arid  or  arid  lands  of  the  extreme 
west.  The  Census  Report  for  1890  gives  the  average 
yield  of  wheat  for  the  United  States  at  slightly  less 
than  fourteen  bushels  per  acre.  Allowing  that  two 
pounds   of   straw    are     produced    for    every   pound   of 


Fertilizers   vs.  Natural   Resources.  21 

grain,  and  taking  the  average  analysis  of  wheat  and 
straw,  the  following  amounts  of  plant -food  are  re- 
moved  from   each   acre  : 

TABLE    VI. 

Plant-food  in  a  wheat  crop. 

Nitrogen 29.73  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 9.49    " 

Potash 13.69    " 

Comparing  these  amounts  with  the  average  con- 
tained in  the  soil,  and  considering  the  yield  of  wheat 
per  acre,  which  is  only  two -fifths  of  what  is  secured 
by  large  numbers  of  farmers,  we  are  led  to  wonder 
what  factors  have  entered  into  wheat  culture  to  pro- 
duce such  a  paucity  of  yield  in  the  presence  of  such 
vast  stores  of  potential  plant -food! 

It  would  require  seventy -five  tons  of  commercial 
fertilizer,  containing  approximately  2  per  cent  of  ni- 
trogen, 2.75  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  11 
per  cent  of  potash,  to  furnish  as  much  plant -food  per 
acre  as  the  analyses  show  to  be  present  in  each  acre, 
in  a  potential  form,  on  an  average,  in  forty-nine 
soils,  after  the  land  has  been  cropped  half  a  century, 
and  half  as  much  more  to  equal  that  in  the  first 
eight  inches  of  subsoil.  The  question  arises,  as  it 
will  often  arise  in  the  discussions  which  follow,  how 
far  tillage  can  be  carried,  and  to  what  extent  cover 
crops  can  be  used,  to  make  these  vast,  natural,  ever- 
present  resources  of  plant  growth  economically  availa- 
ble. No  one  can  even  partially  answer  the  question, 
except  he  asks  the  soil  often  and  intelligently,  and 
then  modifies  the  answer  to  suit  the  methods  and  the 


22  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

conditions  which  prevail  at  the  time  and  place  where 
the  question  is  asked. 

The  average  wheat  crop  removes  but  nine  and 
one -half  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  acre.  Why 
is  it  not  able  to  remove  thirty -eight  pounds  and  pro- 
duce fifty -six  bushels  of  wheat,  when  the  first  sixteen 
inches  of  the  fine  particles  of  surface  soil  contain, 
potentially,  on  the  average,  7,122  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 6,035  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  23,160 
pounds  of  potash  per  acre?.  Are  the  meager  results 
due  to  lack  of  availability  of  these  elements,  or  to 
lack  of  inherited  power  in  the  plant,  or  to  imperfect 
physical  soil  conditions,  or  to  insufficient  moisture,  or 
to  all  combined?  Who  can  solve  sp  difficult  a 
problem ! 

Nearly  all  the  inorganic  constituents  found  in  the 
ash  of  plants  must  be  present  in  the  soil,  and  in 
such  forms  that  they  may  be  set  free  by  the  action 
of  the  living  roots.  Some  of  the  constituents,  as 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  carbon,  and  others  are  not 
necessary  to  productive  soils  ;  plants  grow  without 
the  former,  and  can  procure  the  latter  from  the  at- 
mosphere. Their  presence  is  not  necessary,  so  far 
as  growth  is  concerned,  except  as  they  may  act 
beneficially  on  the  texture,  the  moisture,  or  the  or- 
ganic  or   inorganic   substances. 

No  certain  information  as  to  what  amounts  or 
proportions  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  plants  are 
best  is  found  by  analyzing  their  ash.  If  a  super- 
abundance of  one  element  is  present,  the  plant  may 
not   only  take  up  more  than  it   requires  for  maximum 


Analyses   not   Final.  23 

yield,  but  so  much  as  to  be  positively  injurious. 
Consider  the  case  cited  in  Table  II.,  No.  2,  where 
2.54  per  cent  of  potash  was  present.  If  even  a 
small  per  cent  of  this  were  available,  the  plant  might 
use  more  than  required  for  its  highest  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  plants,  like  animals,  may  thrive 
well  on  a  somewhat  limited  supply  of  one  or  more 
required  elements,  if  other  conditions  are  favorable. 
Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  seldom  or 
never  present  in  the  same  variety  or  species  of  plants 
in  the  same  proportions,  raised  in  different  fields. 
They  associate  themselves  in  the  living  organisms 
not  only  by  chemical  affinities,  but  they  are  governed 
by  many  agencies,  as  hereditary  forces  in  the  plant, 
moisture,  sunlight,  heat  and  cold,  presence  or  absence 
of  an  abundance  of  plant -food  and  the  ease  or  dif- 
ficulty of  securing  it.  Analyses  of  soils  and  plants 
sometimes  answer  questions  which  could  not  be 
reached  in  any  other  way,  and  usually  indicate 
the  direction  which  should  be  taken  to  reach  the 
most  satisfactory  results,  but  they  are  not  of  them- 
selves of  very  great  value,  in  most  cases.  As  the 
most  carefully  designed  piece  of  machinery  may  ut- 
terly fail  when  put  to  use,  so  the  most  analytical 
research  into  the  mysteries  of  soil  and  plants  may 
fail  when  applied,  because  other  forces  not  taken 
into   account    may  dominate   or   affect  the   results. 

The  previous  tables  show  how  variable  soils  may 
be,  and  yet  be  fairly  productive.  They  also  show 
how  wasteful  in  many  cases  must  be  the  applica- 
tion of  a  complete  fertilizer,  even  though  but  a  small 


24  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

portion  of  the  prime  elements  in  the  soil  are  avail- 
able. Those  who  study  the  tables  with  a  view  of 
receiving  aid  in  economical  production  of  crops  will 
discover  at  once  that,  having  the  facts  revealed  by 
the  chemist  for  a  basis,  the  real  problems  must  be 
solved  by  putting  questions  to  the  soil  and  the  crops 
in  an  intelligent  way.  To  be  more  specific :  hav- 
ing the  composition  of  soil  No.  19,  Table  I.,  an  ad- 
dition of  nitrogen  to  it  would  naturally  be  recom- 
mended, since  it  contains  less  than  half  as  much 
nitrogen,  but  a  third  more  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  than  the  average  of  thirty -four  soils  ;  if  the 
application  were  made,  and  no  increase  in  crop  fol- 
lowed, how  can  the  unexpected  result  be  accounted 
for  ?  One  or  more  adverse  conditions  out  of  a  pos- 
sible score  may  have  been  present,  such  as  lack  of 
moisture,  unsuitable  physical  conditions,  or  lack  of 
vital  power  in  the  plant  to  take  advantage  of  the 
increased  food  supply  ;  or  the  conditions  as  to  mois- 
ture, soil,  and  the  like,  might  have  been  of  the  best, 
and  yet  no  increased  yield  result  becaused  the  nitro- 
gen already  in  the  soil  was  largely  available,  and 
more  would  be  superfluous  and  possibly  even  detri- 
mental. The  trouble  might  have  been,  in  the  sup- 
posed case,  a  lack  of  available  potash  or  phosphoric 
acid  The  plant  alone  can  tell  if  it  can  avail  it- 
self of  enough  of  the  mineral  elements  to  make  a 
good   use   of  the   additional   nitrogen. 

It  has  been  shown,  approximately,  what  amounts 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  or  may 
be   in   the   soil ;   it    has   also   been    shown    that   it    is 


Plant -food   used   by   a    Cotton    Crop.  25 

difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  know  how  much  of  it 
may  be  available  for  plant  growth  under  given  con- 
ditions. It  is  now  in  order  to  point  out  what 
demands  are  likely  to  be  made  upon  the  soil  when 
some   of  the   more    common   crops   are   grown. 

The  last  census  (1890)  shows  that  20,175,270 
acres  of  cotton  were  grown  in  the  United  States  in 
1889,  that  it  produced  7,472,511  bales  of  477  pounds 
net,  or  176.67  pounds  per  acre,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  for  each  pound  of  lint  two  pounds  of  seed  are 
grown,  or  353.34  pounds  per  acre.  The  following 
table  gives  the  composition  in  percentages,  and  the 
total  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  the  seed  and  lint  per  acre  of  the  average  crop. 
Since  the  balance  of  the  plant  is  not  removed  from 
the    land,  it   may   be    ignored   in    this    connection  : 

TABLE   VII. 

Analysis    of  cotton. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.  Phos.  acid,  lbs.        Potash,  lbs. 

Seed  (353.34  lbs.).  3.07%    10.85         1.019%    3.6  1.16%   4.10 

Lint  (176.67  lbs.)..     .28%        .49  .066%      .12         .637%    1.13 


11.34  3.72  5.23 

A  good  crop  of  cotton,  such  as  is  raised  on  well 
cultivated  and  fertile  land,  is  one  bale  per  acre,  or 
2%  times  the  average  yield,  and  therefore  upon  the 
better  lands  a  draft  is  made  of  28.35  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  9.30  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  13.07 
pounds  of  potash  by  each  annual  crop.  This  is  not 
a  large  demand,  but  if  continued  through  a  series  of 
years  without  a  rotation   of   tap -rooted  or   leguminous- 


26  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

plants,  the  readily  available  plant-food  may  soon  fall 
to  the  point  at  which  profitable  cultivation  ceases. 

The  unsatisfactory  production  and  the  unhealthy 
condition  of  many  orchards  which  are  mowed  or 
pastured  in  central  and  western  New  York  led  natu- 
rally to  the  question  :  What  demands  have  been  or 
are  likely  to  be  made  on  the  land  by  apple  culture  ? 
Investigations  conducted  with  the  view  of  answering 
the  questions  must  of  necessity  give  only  approxi- 
mately correct  data.  The  following  tables,*  which 
give  the  results  in  brief  of  two  years'  work  will,  it 
is  believed,  be  of  value,  notwithstanding  it  is  assumed 
that  all  of  the  trees  in  an  acre  of  orchard  are  of 
the  same  size,  fruitfulness  and  character  as  those 
weighed  and  analyzed.  Assuming  that  thirty -five 
trees  (one  acre)  would  bear,  thirteen  years  from  set- 
ting, five  bushels  of  apples  yearly  per  tree  for  the 
next  five  years,  and  ten  bushels  for  the  next  suc- 
ceeding five  years,  and  fifteen  bushels  yearly  dur- 
ing the  next  ten  years  ;  and  also  assuming  that  the 
proportion  of  leaves  to  fruit  was  the  same  as  found 
in  the  samples,  and  that  the  apples  and  leaves  were 
all  removed,  the  following   results   are  reached: 

TABLE     VIII. 

Materials  used  and  removed  from  an  acre  by  a  bearing 
apple  orchard   in  twenty  years. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lbs.  Potash,  lbs. 

Apples 498.6  38.25  728.55 

Leaves 456.75  126.  441. 

Trees  (35)  283.15  107.45  264.25 

1,238.50  271.70  1,433.80 

'Bulletin   in').   Cornell   Experiment   Station. 


Food   Removed   by    Trees   and   Maize.  27 

Some  of  the  leaves  remain  on  the  ground  where 
they  fall,  but  the  greater  portion  is  blown  off  the 
land  which  produced  them.  When  the  orchards  are 
closely  pastured  or  mowed,  it  is  probable  that  the  fer- 
tility carried  off  by  pasturing  or  mowing  equals  that 
restored  to  the  land  by  the  leaves  which  remain;  if 
so,  the  table  would  be  approximately  correct  as  to 
the  total  amounts  of  plant -food  taken  from  the 
soil. 

Foregoing  tables  show  that  an  average  soil 
(Table  II.)  has  potential  nitrogen  sufficient  for  32, 
phosphoric  acid  for  129,  and  potash  for  240  crops  of 
maize  of  50  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  crop  of 
1889  was    29.44   bushels  per  acre. 

The  table  gives  the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  some  of  the  leading  crops 
computed  on  the  average  yield  per  acre,  as  given  by 
the  census  of    1890: 

TABLE   IX. 

Removed  by  one.  maize,  crop  of  fifty  bushels. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.       Phos.  acid,  lbs.  Potash,  lbs. 

Maize  (3,000  lbs.)  ..     54.6  21.  12 

Stover  /  4,000  lbs.)..     41.6  11.6  56 

96.2  32.6  68 

TABLE   X. 

Maize,  29.44  bushels  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lb*  Potash,  lbs. 

Grain  (1,766  lbs.)....  32.14  12.36  7.06 

Stover  (4,000  lbs.)...  41.6  11.6  56. 

73.74  23.%  63.06 


The    Fertility   of  the    Umd. 


Wheat,  13.95  bushels  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lbs. 

Grain  (837  lbs. ) 19.75  7.44 

Straw  (2,300  lbs. )  ...   13.57  2.76 


Potash,  lbs. 

5.1 

11.73 


33.32 


10.20 


Barley,  24.32  bushels  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lbs. 
Grain  (1,167  lbs.)  ...  17.62  9.21 

Straw  (2,300  lbs.)...  30.13  6.9 


16.83 


Potash, lbs 

5.6 

48.07 


47.75 


16.11 


Oats,  28.57  bushels  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lbs. 

Grain  ( 914  lbs. ) 18.82  7.49 

Straw  (2,400  lbs. ) . . .   14.88  4.8 


53.67 


Potash,  lbs. 

5.66 

29.76 


33.70 


12.29 


Hay,  1.26  tons  per  acre. 

Nitrogen,  lbs.      Phos.  acid,  lbs. 
Hay  (2,520  lbs) 35.53  6.8 


35.42 


Potash,  lbs. 
39 


The  total  of  the  three  elements  removed  from  an 
acre  by  the  maize,  as  shown  by  Table  X.,  is  160.76 
pounds,  by  the  wheat  60.35  pounds,  by  the  barley 
117.53  pounds,  and  by  the  oats  81.41  pounds,  esti- 
mating as  nearly  as  possible  the  amount  of  stalks 
and  straw  which  accompany  an  average  yield  of 
grain. 

The  figures  show  at  a  glance  how  small  is  the 
amount  of  plant -food  used  to  sustain  the  average 
crop  of  the  United  States.  Small,  indeed,  must  be 
the  amount  used  by  crops  which  produce  scarcely 
one -half  the  average.  It  should  be  noted,  also,  how 
small  is  the  value  and  quantity  of  the  fertilizing  ele- 


Unbalanced   Soils.  29 

raents    used    compared    with    those   contained    in    the 
average  of  the  forty -nine  soils  given    in  Table  II. 

EXTRANEOUS  SOURCES  OF  PLANT -FOOD. 

Having  shown  what  are  the  demands  that  are 
likely  to  be  made  upon  the  soil  by  a  few  of  the 
most  exacting  crops,  it  will  be  instructive  to  go  back 
and  study  Table  I.  more  carefully,  in  order  to  deter- 
mine what  elements,  if  any,  should  be  added.  Act- 
ing upon  the  hints  given  in  the  table,  it  could 
probably  be  discovered  approximately,  by  experimen- 
tation, how  much  of  the  plant -food  could  be  made 
profitably  available,  and  how  much  and  what  kinds 
should  be  added.  It  is  always  difficult  to  get 
clear  ideas  by  discussing  averages,  because  they  may 
be  made  from  combining  extremes.  A  study  of 
Table  I.  will  show  that  a  large  number  of  soils 
exceed  or  come  short  of  the  average  only  in  a 
slight  degree,  so  that  it  may  be  concluded  that 
these  averages  are  not  too  high  for  the  better 
agricultural   districts. 

While  some  of  the  soils  show  an  abundance  of 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  they  are  so  lacking  in 
nitrogen,  presumably  in  that  which  is  available,  that 
not  even  an  average  crop  could  be  raised.  In  some 
cases  the  soil  carries  vast  quantities  of  dormant  fer- 
tility in  only  one  of  the  three  forms,  and  this  may 
not  be  available  on  account  of  its  insolubility,  and 
hence  has  not  been  used,  or  because  one  or  two  other 
elements  are  lacking.      The  latter  condition  is  notably 


30  The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

the  case  in  Nos.  18,  20,  23  and  30,  Table  I.  These 
four  soils  each  contain  more  than  40,000  pounds  of 
potash  per  acre,  or  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the 
average,  while  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  17,  24,  28 
and  31  is  less  than  the  average;  yet  there  is,  indeed, 
enough  to  produce  a  crop  if  even  a  small  per  cent  of 
it  is  available.  These  soils  are  carrying  two  or  three 
times  as  much  potash  as  is  necessary  ;  economy  sug- 
gests that  use  be  made  of  it.  Since  there  is  so  large 
a  surplus,  probably  half  of  it  could  be  removed  with- 
out any  real  injury  to  the  productive  power  of  the 
land.  In  addition  to  this  vast  store,  the  subsoil  may 
be  drawn  upon,  for  in  some  cases  there  is  more,  and 
in  many  cases  nearly  as  much,  plant -food  in  it  as  in 
the  surface  soil.  Since  experimentation  is  the  only 
method  by  which  it  can  be  determined  how  much 
can  be  made  available  by  deep  and  tap -rooted  plants, 
and  by  deep  and  thorough  surface  tillage,  little  profit 
can  be  derived  from  discussing  this  phase  of  the 
subject  further,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  larger 
proportion  of  this  dormant  energy  can  be  made 
available.  When  it  is  realized  how  enormous  is  the 
amount  of  potential  energy  in  both  surface  soil  and 
subsoil,  it  should  lead  the  farmer  to  better  methods 
of  tillage,  and  to  put  systematic  questions  to  the 
land  which  he  cultivates. 

It  has  been  shown  what  is  or  is  likely  to  be  in 
the  soil,  and  what  has  been  or  may  be  taken  out  of 
it ;  it  still  remains  to  be  shown  what  is  added  to  the 
soil  from  outside  sources,  before  tillage  and  imple- 
ments can  be   discussed  intelligently.       In  the  humid 


Sources    of    Plant-  Food.  31 

belt,  except  in  mountain  districts,  from  six  to  ten 
pounds  of  potential  nitrogen  are  brought  annually  to 
each  acre  of  land  by  the  rainfall.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  vast  stores  of  potential  nitrogen  secured 
through  leguminous  plants,  which  also  bring  to  the 
surface  considerable  quantities  of  mineral  matter 
which  would  not  otherwise  be  available  for  the  sur- 
face-rooted plants.      (See  Chapter  XIV.) 

Having  these  two  sources,  which  may  be  called 
the  incidental  ones,  to  draw  upon,  there  is  still  the 
third, — barn  manures, — which  is  always  present  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  on  every  farm.  American 
writers  contend  that  barn  manures  are  relatively  rich 
in  nitrogen  and  poor  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
but  European  writers  usually  assert  the  reverse. 
This  apparent  contradiction  most  likely  arises  from 
different  methods  of  comparison.  If  the  comparison  is 
made  between  that  which  the  plant  still  requires,  after 
having  made  use  of  the  stored  available  nitrogen  in 
the  soil  and  that  brought  to  it  by  the  rainfall  and 
the  growth  of  leguminous  plants,  then  barn  manures 
may  be  considered  relatively  high  in  nitrogen.  If  the 
comparison  is  made  between  manures  which  have 
been  exposed  in  open  yards  and  the  composition  of 
the  leading  crops,  then  they  may  be  said  to  be  rela- 
tively poor  in  nitrogen.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

If  mixed  husbandry  is  practiced,  and  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  crops  is  fed  to  stock  on  the  farm, 
nearly  or  quite  half  of  the  plant -food  taken  from 
the  fields  by  the  crop  may  be  restored  to  it  from 
this  source  alone.       If,    in   addition   to  this,   clover  is 


32  The    Fertility   of  the   land. 

used  in  a  short  rotation,  only  a  very  small  draft  for 
mineral  matter  will  be  made  on  the  original  surface 
soil,  and  in  many  cases  all  the  nitrogen  required  for 
ordinary  crops  may  be  supplied  from  the  three  sources 
named,  though  in  some  kinds  of  intensified  agricul- 
ture large  quantities,  not  only  of  mineral  matter  but 
nitrogen  as  well,  may  be  profitably  added  in  concen- 
trated fertilizers. 

If  Table  X.  is  considered  in  reference  to  mixed 
husbandry,  with  clover  in  the  rotation,  it  will  be 
seen  how  small  an  amount  of  plant -food  must  be 
taken  from  that  already  in  the  soil  to  produce  an 
average  crop  ;  and  when  considered  in  connection 
with  Tables  I.  to  III.,  the  demand  of  the  plant  upon 
the  stores  in  the  soil  is  comparatively  so  small  that 
it  is  a  wonder  that  larger  crops  than  those  given 
in  Table  IX.  are  not  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception. 

Since  the  soil  and  the  subsoil  contain  such  stores 
of  potential  fertility,  and  since  tap -rooted  leguminous 
plants  bring  to  the  surface  abundant  quantities  of  ni- 
trogen with  some  mineral  matter,  and  since  many 
fields  receive  applications  of  farm  manure  from  time 
to  time,  some  far-reaching  cause  or  causes  must  be 
present  ever  tending  to  seriously  restrict  production. 
It  will  be  found  that  in  this  country  the  principal 
causes  of  low  yields  of  farm  crops  are  imperfect 
preparation  of  the  land,  poor  tillage  and  hence  a  lack 
of  available  plant -food,  and  insufficient  moisture 
during  some  portion  of  the  plant's  life. 

A  hasty  survey  of   the    land  having  been  made,   it 


Cause   of   Low   Average     Yields.  33 

is  found  that  the  low  average  yields  are  not  usually 
due  to  lack  of  potential  plant -food  in  the  soil,  and 
that  most  agricultural  plants  never  have  full  oppor- 
tunity to  come  to  their  best  estate,  as  the  meager 
average  yield  and  the  inferior  quality  of  many  of  the 
products  of  the  farm  abundantly  prove.  The  lack  of 
appreciation  and  utilization  of  nature's  storehouse  and 
laws  suggests  a  discussion  of  the  plow,  which  now 
follows. 


CHAPTER  n. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  PLOW. 

The  following  history  and  illustrations  are  given 
that  the  reader  may  carefully  study  the  growth  and 
improvement  of  implements  for  tilling  the  earth, 
thereby  arriving  at  the  true  principles  and  most 
economical  methods  which  should  obtain  when  that 
most  laborious  and  expensive  operation  of  agriculture, 
— preparation  of  the  land  for  crops,  —  is  undertaken. 
The  history  is  of  necessity  far  from  complete,  and 
full  credit  cannot  be  given  to  all  who  may  deserve  it, 
nor  can  we  arrive,  in  so  brief  a  sketch,  at  full  histor- 
ical  agreement   as   to  priority  of   improvement. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    PLOW    IN    THE    OLD    WORLD. 

Sculptures  on  ancient  monuments,  dating  back 
4,000  years   or    more,    give   conclusive    evidence    that 

Note. — The  following  definitions  of  terms  used  in  describing  plows  may 
be  useful  to  those  who  have  little  acquaintance  with  the  subject : 

Bridle.  The  clevis  at  the  end  of  the  plow  beam,  for  controlling  the  depth 
and  width  of  the  furrow 

Colter  or  Cutter.  A  steel-edged  circular  or  knife-like  blade  attached  to 
the  beam,  for  severing  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  furrow  from  the  ad- 
joining land. 

Lock  Colter.  One  which  is  united  by  the  back  of  its  point  with  the  point 
of  the  share. 

Land-slide.    That  part  of  the  plow  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  moldboard. 

Share  or  Point.  A  broad  steel  or  iron  plate  attached  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
moldboard,  for  severing  the  furrow  slice  horizontally. 

Jointer  or  Skim  Plow.  A  small  steel  or  iron  attachment  by  which  a  min- 
iature furrow  ia  eut  and  turned  in  advance  of  the  plow.    (See  Figs.  14, 15.) 

(34) 


Early   Forms  of  Plows. 


35 


the   plow  was   then   in  common  use,  and   it  probably 
had  been  used   for  preparing  the  land   for  plants  cen- 


^sss^rnf 


Fig.   1.    One  of  the  earliest  types  of  plow. 

turies  before.  It  is  believed  by  Bible  critics  that  the 
Book  of  Job  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  writings  of 
the  Old  Testament,  yet  the  first  chapter  alludes  to  the 
plow  :  "  The  oxen  were  plowing  and  the  asses  feed- 
ing beside  them." 

A   few   illustrations   will  serve   to   show   the  essen- 
tial  characters   of   the   types   of   primitive   plows : 


Fig.  2.    East  Indian  plow. 

Fig.    1    is    from    an    ancient    monument    in    Asia 
Minor,    and    represents     one    of    the    most    primitive 


36  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

forms    of    implements    of    tillage,    being    simply    the 
crooked   branch    of   a   tree,  with  the  exception  of  the 


Pig.  3.      Egyptian  plow. 

brace  e,  and  the  pins  near  the  end  of  the  beam, 
which  were  used  for  attaching  the  plow  to  the  yoke. 
Fig.  2,  from  a  model  of  an  East  Indian  plow  in  the 
Agricultural  Museum  of  Cornell  University,  is  said  to 
be  the  only  plow  still  used  in  some  parts  of  India. 
In    ancient   times    it    was   used   in   British  husbandry, 


Fig.  4.    Eleventh  century  plow. 

and  appears  to  have  been  the  first    effort  to  cover  the 
point  with  iron.       Pig.   3  shows  a  plow  used  in  many 


A    Plow    Much    h'atd    in    France. 


37 


parts  of  Egypt  and  Mexico,  and  one  not  entirely  dis- 
carded at  the  present  day.  Fig.  4  illustrates  the  Eng 
lish    plow  of    the  eleventh   century,  used   in  the   time 


Fig.  5.     French  plow. 

of  William  the  Conqueror.  Fig.  5  represents  the 
form  of  plow  that  is  still  in  use  in  many  parts  of 
France.  Although  the  improved  plow  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  better  agricultural  districts  of 
France,  plows  with  some  form  of  tracks  placed  under 
the  beam,  which  is  set  at  an  acute  angle,  are  not  un- 
common.    The  attachment  of  the  beam  near  the  colter 


Fig.  6.     Early  Dutch  plow. 


by  a  chain  gives  great  flexibility.  Slightly  modified, 
this  method  of  attachment  would  appear  to  be  more 
scientific  than  the  one  in  common  use  in  America,  as 


38 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


the  plowman  has  the  long  end  of  the  lever  ;  that  is, 
it  is  a  greater  distance  from  the  standard  to  the  ends 
of  the  handles  than  from  the  standard  to  the  point 
at  which  the  team  is  attached. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  our  present  plow  seems 
to  have  been  derived  largely  from  Holland.  Fig.  6  is 
a  cut  of  the  plow  used  in  Holland  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  introduced  into 
Yorkshire,  England,  and  became  popular  among   pro- 


Fig.  7.    English  plow  of  last  century. 

gressive  farmers.  From  this  time  on  the  improve- 
ment of  the  plow  was  rapid.  Fig.  7  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  Berkshire  plow  used  in  England  in  1730, 
and  highly  recommended  by  Jethro  Tull.  At  that 
date  Tull  had  already  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
science  of  tillage.  He  saw  that  agriculture  needed 
implements  to  divide  the  soil  more  perfectly,  not 
only  before  the  seeds  were  sown,  but  afterwards.  He 
seems  to  have  comprehended  very  fully  the  needs  of 
English  agriculture,  and  although  he  made  many  mis- 
takes, he  still  did  a  wonderful  work  by  inventing 
the  drill,  practicing  horse-hoe  tillage,  and  by  empha- 


Importance  of   Thorough    Tillage.  39 

sizing  the  need  of  better  tillage  in  order  that  a  more 
economical  use  might  be  made  of  the  stored  elements 
in  the  soil.  A  principle  laid  down  by  him  was  that 
"  tillage,  and  tillage  alone,  will  create  and  supply 
the  food  of  plants,  and  will,  in  most  cases,  render 
manure  wholly  unnecessary.  By  dung  we  are  limited 
to  the  quantity  of  it  we  can  secure,  which,  in  most 
cases,  is  too  scanty.  But  by  tillage  we  can  enlarge 
our  fields  of  subterranean  pasture  without  limitation, 
though  the  external  source  of  it  be  confined  within 
narrow  bounds.  Tillage  may  extend  the  earth's  in- 
ternal superficies  in  proportion  to  the  division  of  its 
parts,  and  as  division  is  infinite,  so  may  the  super- 
ficies be.  Every  time  the  earth  is  broken  by  any 
sort  of  tillage  or  division,  there  must  arise  some 
new  superficies  of  the  broken  parts  which  never  have 
been  opened  before  ;  for  when  the  parts  of  earth  are 
once  united  and  incorporated  together,  it  is  morally 
impossible  that  they  or  any  of  them  should  be 
broken  again  only  in  the  same  places  ;  for  to  do 
that,  such  parts  must  have  again  the  same  numerical 
figures  and  dimensions  they  had  before  such  break- 
ing, which,  even  by  an  infinite  division,  could  never 
be   likely  to  happen."* 

It  will  be  seen  how  close  and  accurate  Tull's 
reasoning  is  with  the  exception  of  two  clauses  :  one 
asserts  that  "  by  tillage  the  subterranean  pasture  can 
be  enlarged  without  limitation,"  and  the  other  that 
"  tillage,   and    tillage    alone,    will    create    and    supply 


•Jethro  Tull,  The  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry.     (Published  by  William   Cob- 
b«tt,   London,   1829.     Introd.   by  Wm.  Cobbett.) 


40 


The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 


the  food  of  plants."  This  should,  of  course,  be 
modified,  for  pasturage  cannot  be  enlarged  indefinitely, 
nor  can  tillage  create  plant -food. 

By  his  drill  and  horse -hoe  methods,  Tull  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  twelve  wheat  crops  continuously  on 
the  same  land  without  manuring,  and  without  any 
marked  diminution  in  the  yield  per  acre.  Had  he 
studied  the  mechanical  forces  which  are  concerned  in 
the  minute  division  of  the  soil  by  the  plow  as  closely 
as  he  did  the  wants  of  the  plants  and  the  means  of 


EAST  LOTHIAN  OR  SMALL'S  PLOW 

Fig.  8.    East   Lothian  Scotch  plow. 


supplying  them,  he  might  have  seen  that  the  Berk- 
shire plow  was  not  well  adapted  to  pulverizing  the 
soil  in  the  most  economical  manner.  In  order  to  fine 
soils  economically,  their  particles  should  be  made  to 
grind  each  other  by  attrition,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple used  in  polishing  rough  castings.  It  has  re- 
cently been  found,  by  careful  experiments,  that  divid- 
ing the  soil  by  colters,  or  even  by  a  single  colter,  re- 
quires a  large  amount  of  force,  and  that  to  break  and 
crush  the  soil  by  concussion  or  attrition  is  the  most 
economical  way  of  pulverizing  it.  It  is,  therefore, 
no   wonder  that  the   Berkshire    plow  was  soon    super- 


Characteristics   of  European   Plows.  41 

seded  by  others,  which  had  overhanging  moldboards 
and  a  single  colter  placed  close  to  the  standard  and 
shin  of  the  plow.  Tull  had  no  means  of  determining 
the  loss  by  friction  due  to  the  weight  of  the  plow 
alone,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  30  per  cent  of   the 


Fig  9.    Midlothian  or  Rausome  plow. 

entire  draft  ;  nor  did  he,  apparently,  suspect  how 
greatly  the  draft  of  the  plow  was  increased  by  the 
added  colters. 

The  plow  of  East  Lothian,  Scotland,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  Some  of  its  distinctive  features  have  been 
retained  in  parts  of  Europe  to  the  present  day.  Its 
extreme  length,  and  lack  of  width  and  twist,  indi- 
cate that  narrow,  straight  furrows  must  have  been 
then,  as  in  fact  they  still  are,  the  pride  of  the 
Scotch  plowman.  Tull,  in  his  zeal  to  fine  the  soil, 
overlooked  the  unscientific  and  expensive  means  by 
which    it    was    accomplished.        The    British    plowman, 


42  The  Fertility  of  the   Land. 

in  his  zeal  for  straight  furrows  and  easy  draft, 
overlooked  pulverization  of  the  furrow,  which  is  or 
should  be  the  chief  object  of  plowing.  Fig.  9 
illustrates  the  Midlothian  plow,  modified  and  im- 
proved. Plows  similar  to  this  are  still  in  com- 
mon use  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  long 
wedge  shape  is  still  preserved.  The  skim  or  jointer 
plow,  so  successfully  used  in  the  United  States  in 
a  few  localities,  is  an  adaptation  of  this  type.  Such 
plows  are  adapted  only  to  land  free  from  stumps 
and  stones,  and  they  illustrate  the  English  idea  of 
laying  flat  furrows,  in  which  respect  the  English 
method  differs  radically  from  the  American,  which 
seeks  to  break  up  the  furrow  by  bold,  overhanging 
moldboards,  to  the  detriment  of  the  appearance  of 
the  plowed   land. 

All  of  the  foregoing  illustrations  show  that  until 
very  recently  the  effort  of  the  plow -maker  has  been 
directed  largely  towards  producing  an  implement  of 
light  draft  by  constructing  it  on  sharp  wedged  lines, 
with  little  reference  to  pulverizing  efficiency.  For 
the  most  part  he  ignored  the  draft  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  plow,  and  also  the  economy  of  the 
bold,  overhanging  moldboard,  whereby  the  furrow  is 
broken  and  robbed  of  its  tenacity  and  left  in  a  cor- 
rugated condition,  so  that  the  other  implements  of 
tillage  may  do  their  work  effectively.  Observation 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  in  England  twice  as 
much  surface  tillage  is  given  in  preparing  the  seed- 
bed as  in  America,  due,  without  doubt,  chiefly  to 
the    imperfect    principle    on    which    their    plows   are 


Improvements  in   the   Plow.  43 

constructed.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  the 
furrows  on  sod  ground  laid  as  flat  as  shown  in 
Fig.  16  (Chapter  III.,  page  65),  or  as  little  dis- 
turbed by  the  action  of  the  moldboard  as  in  Fig.  17 
(page  66).  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  plow  has 
developed  in  England  and  America  on  very  dif- 
ferent lines. 

In  1785  Robert  Ransome,  of  Ipswich,  England, 
succeeded  in  making  plowshares  of  cast  iron.  This 
was  a  great  step  in  advance  of  the  old  method,  by 
which  each  share  was  formed  according  to  the  skill 
of  the  blacksmith.  Until  this  time,  most  of  the 
improvements  of  the  plow  were  lost  at  the  death  of 
the  genius  who  had  invented  them.  Arthur  Young 
writes  in  his  Agricultural  Report  of  Suffolk,  that 
"a  very  ingenious  blacksmith  of  the  name  of  Brand 
made  a  plow  of  iron,"  and  adds  that  "there  is  no 
other  in  the  kingdom  equal  to  it  ; "  but  this  valuable 
improvement  passed  away  with  the  inventor.  In 
1803,  Ransome  discovered  and  patented  a  method  for 
case-hardening  or  chilling  shares.  The  ordinary  cast 
share,  unhardened,  became  quickly  blunted  and,  since 
it  could  not  be  sharpened,  had  to  be  exchanged  for 
a  new  one.  The  case-hardening  of  about  one -six- 
teenth of  an  inch  on  the  lower  surface  preserved  to 
a  considerable  extent  the  sharp  edge,  since  the 
upper  and  softer  portion  of  the  share  wore  away 
faster  than  the  lower.  The  bridle  or  clevis  at  the 
end  of  the  beam,  to  control  the  width  and  depth  of 
the  furrow,  had  already   been  invented. 


44  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    PLOW    IN    AMERICA. 

Among  the  stumps  and  stones  of  New  England, 
and  even  in  the  Middle  states,  the  long  English 
plow  could  not  be  used  to  advantage.  While  we 
brought  from  England  and  Holland,  to  a  great  extent, 
our  methods  of  living,  tools,  styles  of  architecture, 
and   our  government,  the   foreign  idea   of  plows   and 


Fig.  10.      Ancient  Yankee  plow. 

plowing  had  to  be  radically  modified.  Fig.  10  repre- 
sents a  plow  in  the  Agricultural  Museum  of  Cornell 
University,  which  was  used  in  Connecticut  over  one 
hundred  years  ago.  The  moldboard  is  formed  from  a 
section  of  a  winding  tree,  the  grain  of  the  timber  run- 
ning as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  move- 
ment of  the  furrow.  It  was  protected  by  nailing 
upon  it  refuse  band-iron,  wornout  horse  shoes,  and 
old  hoes.  A  share  and  lock -colter  were  provided, 
the  latter  being  necessary  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
passing  backward  to  the  standard  of  the  plow  be- 
fore they  were  cut  or  broken  by  the  colter.  Here 
we   have,  as   compared   with   the   European   plow,  the 


American   Improvers   of  the   Plow.  45 

other  extreme,  the  beam  and  moldboard  short  and 
the  handles  erect,  enabling  the  plowman  to  more 
easily  plow  around  obstructions,  and  to  till  the  land 
to  the  very  roots  of  the  stumps.  The  point  of  the 
share  was  bent  sharply  downward  to  prevent  it  from 
rising  to  the  surface  ;  and,  therefore,  wherever  the 
soil  was  fairly  free  from  roots  and  stones  it  would 
run  too  deep.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  a  wooden 
shoe  was  placed  near  the  end  of  the  beam,  to 
govern  the  depth  of  the  furrow  better  than  a  wheel 
would  on  rough  land.  The  length  of  the  beam  of 
the  modern  American  plow  is  not  much  greater  than 
that  shown  in  Fig.  10,  although  nearly  all  plows 
are  now  used  in  lands  free  from  stumps  and  large 
stones. 

In  1780,  Thomas  Jefferson,  American  ambassador 
to  France,  made  a  study  of  the  plows  used  at  Nancy. 
He  makes  the  following  note  :  "Oxen  plow  here 
with  collars  and  hames.  The  awkward  figure  of  the 
moldboard  leads  one  to  consider  what  should  be 
its  form."  In  1793,  Jefferson  put  his  theory  of  cone- 
shaped  moldboards  to  a  test  at  Albemarle,  Bed- 
ford county,  Virginia.  The  lines  of  his  plow  were 
formed  on  what  appear  to  be  true  mathematical 
principles,  but  it  failed  to  accomplish  all  that  was 
desired,  for  it  neither  turned  the  furrow  well  nor 
pulverized   the   soil    satisfactorily. 

The  first  American  after  Thomas  Jefferson  who 
interested  himself  in  a  large  way  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  plow  was  a  farmer,  Charles  Newbold, 
of   Burlington,   X.   J.       He    made    the    first    American 


46  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

cast-iron  plow,  and  took  out  letters  patent  for  the 
same  on  June  26,  1797.  Prejudice  against  this  "new- 
fangled "  plow  was  so  great  that  it  did  not  come  into 
general  use,  the  farmers  believing  that  cast-iron 
plows  poisoned  the  land  and  caused  weeds  to  grow. 
The  latter  accusation  was  certainly  true,  for  weeds 
respond  to  improved  cultivation  quite  as  readily  as 
the  better  cultivated  plants  do.  Newbold  later  substi- 
tuted a  wrought -iron  share  for  the  cast  one,  but  it 
did  not  overcome  the  early  prejudice  which  had  been 
formed   against   his  plow.* 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  Arts,  and 
Manufactures,  New  York,  it  appears  that  in  1794 
Colonel  John  Smith  produced  a  model  of  a  cast-iron 
plowshare  that  "should  save  expense  in  husbandry," 
which  he  proposed  to  substitute  for  the  common 
forged  wrought  share  then  in  use.  Later  he  mod- 
ified his  cast  share  by  riveting  to  it  a  false 
wrought -iron  or  steel  edge.  The  object  of  this 
was  to  make  it  capable  of  being  sharpened  from 
time  to  time,  and  thereby  obviate  the  renewal  of 
the   entire  share  when   dull. 

In  1807  David  Peacock,  of  New  Jersey,  took  out 
patents  on  an  improved  plow  which  came  to  be 
very  valuable,  and  as  the  prejudice  against  the  cast 
plow  had  measurably  passed  away,  it  came  into  com- 
mon use.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  very  similar 
to  Mr.  Newbold' s   plow,   since  he  received  from  Pea- 

*For  details  and  specifications  of  various  plows,  see  "  Utica  Plow  Trial." 
1867.    Trans.  N.  Y.  Agric.  Soc.  xxvii.,  Part  I. 


Adjustment   of  the   Moldboard.  47 

cock    $1,500   as    a  satisfaction    for    an    infringement 
claim. 

In  1820  Timothy  Pickering,  who  took  a  very 
active  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  plow,  says 
in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Coventry:  "My  opinion  is  that 
the  straight  lines  are  essential  to  the  form  of  the 
moldboard  of  the  least  resistance."  Here,  again, 
ease  of  draft  instead  of  efficiency  of  the  work  done 
by  the   plow  is   made  foremost. 

The  fact  that  a  plow  having  a  correct  form  might 
be  made  to  accomplish  a  large  part  of  the  work  of 
fining  the  soil  had  not  yet  attracted  attention  either 
in  Europe  or  America.  Effort  was  largely  directed 
to  forming  a  moldboard  that  would  turn  the  fur- 
row, and  when  one  had  been  constructed  that  fined 
the  soil  better  than  others,  it  was  discarded  if  the 
draft  chanced  to  be  a  little  more  than  that  of  the 
plows  in  use.  The  reasoning  was  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: "In  adjusting  the  moldboard  of  the  plow, 
another  point  is  to  be  determined,  — the  extent  of 
the  angle  which  the  essential  straight  line  should 
form  with  the  bar  of  the  share  or  land -side  of  the 
plow,  for  the  smaller  this  angle  the  less  the  resist- 
ance at  entering  the  earth ;  but  if  the  angle  were 
to  be  very  small,  the  plow  must  have  great  length 
to  obtain  a  proper  breadth  of  furrow;  and  such  great 
length  would  proportionately  increase  the  quantity  of 
friction."*  It  is  readily  seen  that  an  error  of  rea- 
soning has  crept  into  the  last  clause  of  the  quotation, 
for    friction    is     not     increased     by    lengthening     the 

•Report  of    the  "  Utica  Plow  Trial,"  1867. 


48  The   Fertility   of  the    Land 

moldboard,  other  things  being  equal.  Supposing 
the  resistance  of  the  moldboard  to  be  represented 
by  100,  the  total  friction  will  not  be  increased  by 
distributing  it  over  a  larger  surface,  or  diminished 
by  confining  it  to  a  smaller  one.  It  is  true  that 
a  bold  moldboard  will  cause  more  friction  than  a 
straighter  one,  but  this  would  be  entirely  due  to 
the  greater  resistance  produced  by  the  bolder  wedge, 
and  not  to  the  fact  that  a  less  surface  presented 
itself  to  cutting  and  twisting  the  furrow -slice  ;  or, 
to  illustrate,  a  board  draws  as  easily  on  its  flat  side 
as  on  its  edge.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
amount  of  friction  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  surface  and  the  weight  independent  of  extent 
of  surface,  which  would  not  be  true  in  case  of  fluid 
friction. 

As  soon  as  the  cast  plow  was  an  assured  fact, 
the  next  effort  was  to  make  it  of  three  or  four 
interchangeable  parts,  that  it  might  be  easily  repaired. 
Numerous  patents  were  taken  out  for  minor  changes 
in  the  draft -rod,  clevis  and  wheel.  The  lock -colters 
became  common  in  the  wooded  districts,  and  were 
a  great  improvement  over  those  which  allowed  the 
roots  to  pass  back  of  the  colter  to  the  standard 
without  being  cut,  in  which  latter  case  the  plow  had 
to  be  relieved  by  severing  the  roots  with  an  ax. 

In  recent  years,  plow -makers  have  modified  the 
character  of  plows  somewhat  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  share,  beam  and  handles,  and  by  placing 
the  handles  lower  and  at  a  less  acute  angle  than 
formerly.       Why   these   changes  did    not    come   about 


The    Plow    Should   Fine    the    Soil. 


49 


sooner, —  as  soon  as  the  fields  were  eleared  of  obstruc 
tions, —  it  it  difficult  to  understand,  for  they  give  bet- 
ter control  of   the  plow  than  the  shorter  construction, 
without    impairing    the   efficiency  of   the  moldboard. 

In  1839,  Samuel  Witherow  and  David  Pierce  saw 
the  need  of  a  plow  which  would  accomplish  in  a 
larger    degree    the    fining    of     the    soil.        They    say  : 


Fie.    11.     l>aniel   Webster's    plow. 

"Having  thus  fully  sel  forth  the  nature  of  our  in- 
vention, and  shown  the  manner  in  which  we  carry 
the  same  into  operation,  what  we  claim  therein  is, 
the  giving  to  our  moldboard  the  segment  of  a  cy- 
cloid convexly  on  its  face  in  a  line  leading  from 
front  to  rear,  and  concavely  in  the  lines  of  the 
ascent  of  the  furrow-slice,  the  object  being  to  cause 
various  parts  of  the  furrow  to  move  with  unequal 
velocity.  The  main  object  is  to  pulverize  the  soil, 
and  the  only  way  in  which  it  can  be  effected  is 
by    bending    a    furrow -slice    on    a    curved    surface    so 


50  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

formed  that  it  shall  also  be  twisted  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of   a  screw." 

In  1836  or  1837,  Daniel  Webster  invented  a  plow 
capable  of  handling  a  furrow  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  deep.  It  was  twelve  feet  long  from  bridle 
to  the  tips  of  handles,  the  land -side  four  feet  long, 
and  the  bar  and  share  were  forged  together.  The 
wooden  moldboard  was  plated  with  strips  of  iron, 
and  had  a  breadth  at  the  heel  to  land -side  of 
eighteen  inches,  with  an  extreme  spread  at  the  rear 
of  twenty -seven  inches.  The  plow  was  provided  with 
a  lock -colter  and  a  wrought- iron  steel -edge  share. 
Four  yokes  of  oxen  were  required  to  draw  this  huge 
plow,  which  was  capable  of  turning  a  furrow  twelve 
inches  deep  and  two  feet  wide  in  the  old  pasture 
fields  which  had  become  partly  overrun  with  bushes 
and  even  small  birch  trees.  In  later  years,  iron 
plows  similar  to  this  were  used  in  the  west  to  sub- 
due the  hazel  border  which  frequently  joined  the 
timber  belt  to  the  prairies.  These  plows  were  the 
fore-runners  of   the  great  "prairie  breaker." 

In  1843,  T.  D.  Burrell,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  en- 
deavored to  reduce  the  friction  of  the  land -side  by 
substituting  for  it  a  wheel.  This  attempt  has  been 
made  many  times  since,  but  has  not  been  successful, 
since  the  wheel  becomes  obstructed  and  immovable, 
and   is   then  not   so   good   as   the   ordinary  land -side. 

About  1860,  trench  plows  were  made,  but  they 
were  little  used  for  deep  tillage  ;  they  were  fairly 
well  adapted  for  digging  ditches,  but  they  have  gone 
out   of   use.      Most   farmers    do   but    a    small    amount 


Trench   and   Subsoil   Plows.  51 

of  underdraining  each  year,  and  it  is  found  to  be 
more  economical  to  use  the  common  plow  for  partly 
opening  the  trenches  than  to  keep  an  extra  one  for 
that   sole    purpose. 

A  little  prior  to  this  time,  there  was  a  general  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  depth  to  which  plowing  might  be 
profitably  carried,  which  led  to  placing  two  plows 
upon  one  beam.  The  first  plow  took  off  three  or 
four  inches  of  the  surface  soil  and  deposited  it  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  second  and  larger 
plow  was  set  to  run  six  or  seven  inches  deep,  and 
deposited  its  furrow  on  the  top  of  the  first  one. 
This  trench  plowing  was  not  only  expensive,  as  it 
required  great  power,  but  it  deposited  the  subsoil  on 
the  surface  and  the  vegetable  matter  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow,  a  state  of  affairs  which  often  resulted 
in  poor  crops  for  several  years,  or  until  the  inert 
matter  in  the  upturned  subsoil  could  be  set  free  by 
surface  tillage.  These  plows  have  never  come  into 
common   use. 

A  later  outcome  of  this  same  discussion  was  the 
subsoil  plow,  which  loosened  the  earth  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  but  did  not  bring  it  to  the 
surface.  On  certain  lands  subsoiling  is  beneficial, 
but  it  was  soon  found  to  be  better  economy  to 
loosen  the  subsoil  by  underdrains  and  clover  than 
to  go  to  the  expense  of  loosening  it  every  few  years 
by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow.  These,  also,  to  a 
great  extent,  have  gone  out  of  use.  At  the  present 
time  an  effort  is  being  made  to  revive  them,  it 
being  contended    that  subsoiling   is  very  beneficial,  in 


52  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

that  it  enlarges  the  power  of  the  earth  to  store  up 
water,  thereby  mitigating  or  preventing  the  effect  of 
droughts.  This  contention  is  true  in  part,  but 
when  to  use  the  subsoil  plow  and  when  not  to  use 
it  are  matters  of  local  economy  and  expediency. 

PRAIRIE    PLOWS. 

The  first  western  emigrants,  who  settled  in  or  near 
the  belts  of  timber  at  the  verge  of  the  great  prairies, 
soon  found  that  the  open  prairies  were  easier  to  re- 
claim and  far  richer  than  the  fringe  of  wood  which 
bordered  upon  them.  Little  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced in  subduing  the  tough  prairie  sod  with  the 
great  breaking -plows,  even  though  it  required  a 
strong  team,  for  oxen  and  steers  were  abundant  and 
cheap.  Ten  or  twelve  yokes  were  sometimes  at- 
tached to  one  plow,  the  team  being  driven  by  one 
man  on  foot  or  horseback.  A  well -broken  yoke 
of  cattle  was  placed  in  the  lead,  a  heavy  yoke  at 
the  beam,  and  the  balance  of  the  team  was  made 
up  of  unbroken  steers,  which  became  more  valuable 
from  week  to  week  because  of  the  training  which 
they  received.  Most  of  these  plows  had  truck -wheels 
attached,  so  that  they  required  no  holding.  They 
cut  a  furrow  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  wide 
and  about  two  inches  deep.  The  moldboards  were 
sometimes  formed  of  rods  of  iron,  and  were  set  at 
such  angles  as  would  kink  the  furrow  and  leave 
it  on  edge,  so  that  during  dry  weather  the  grass 
would   perish   for  want   of    moisture.      The   following 


The    Old  -  Tim  e   "  Prairie  -  Brea  Tie  r . " 


53 


spring   the  ground   was   harrowed   or  replowed   before 
sowing. 

As  emigration  extended  further  west  into  the 
dry  belt,  where  the  prairie  sod  was  less  tenacious  on 
account  of  limited  moisture  and  the  trampling  and 
feeding  of  numerous  cattle,  the  method  of  breaking 
up     the     land     became    somewhat     modified.        Three 


V\g.   12.    An  oliltime  "prairie-breaker. 


horses  attached  to  a  steel  plow  with  rolling  colter 
could  perform  the  work.  The  share  and  colter  were 
both  filed  every  few  hours,  that  they  might  the 
more  easily  cut  the  tough  grass  roots.  Fig.  12  rep- 
resents one  of  the  old-style  prairie -breakers,  with 
the  beam  nine  to  ten  feet,  long,  and  capable  of 
withstanding  almost  any  amount  of  strain.  Owing 
to  the  changed  conditions  noted  above,  this  plow 
has  become  nearly  obsolete.  As  soon  as  the  native 
grasses  were  destroyed  the  American  plowman,  as 
well  as  the  plow -maker,  discovered  that  economy  re- 
quired   much    of    the    pulverization    of    the    soil    to    be 


54  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

done  by  the  plow  alone,  in  order  to  save  labor  in 
fitting  the  seed-bed.  This  fact  was  not  fully  realized 
in  the  United  States  until  agriculture  reached  the 
great  prairies,  where  the  mellowness  of  the  soil  and 
the  immense  areas  to  be  cultivated  soon  developed  a 
plow  which  could  fit  stubble  land  for  a  succeeding 
crop  with  little  or  no  subsequent  treatment.  As 
soon  as  the  grass  roots  were  rotted  and  the  land 
was  well  subdued,  there  was  great  difficulty  in  se- 
curing a  plow  that  would  "scour,"  or  clear  itself. 
As  high  as  $100  was  offered  by  one  of  the  early 
settlers  in  LaPorte  county,  Indiana,  for  one  that 
would   "scour"    and   do    good   work. 

Between  1860  and  1870,  a  glass  plow  was  in- 
vented. It  failed  to  meet  expectations,  since  it  did 
not  scour  as  well  as  those  already  in  use.  To  stand 
the  strain  it  was  made  heavy,  was  likely  to  break, 
and,  therefore,  it  never  advanced  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage.  If  the  action  of  the  ancient  wooden 
moldboard  had  been  carefully  observed,  it  would 
have  been  discovered  that  it  possessed  the  quality 
of  scouring  beyond  all  other  moldboards  except  those 
made   of  hardened   steel. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CONTEMPORANEOUS  PLOWS. 

The  next  effort  was  to  construct  a  plow  with 
a  steel  moldboard,  which  was  hardened  by  chilling 
the  outer  surface  after  heating  in  layers  of  charcoal. 
Before  purchasing,  the  farmer  tested  the  moldboard 
with   the   sharp  point  of  a  knife;  —  if  a  scratch  could 


The   Making   of  the   Moldboard.  55 

be  made  the  plow  was  condemned.  These  plows 
often  worked  well  for  a  time,  but  the  unequal 
wear  and  the  unequal  hardening  resulted  in  devel- 
oping soft  spots  in  the  moldboard,  to  which  the  dirt 
would  adhere  and  around  which  it  would  build  until 
the  plow  was  little  better  in  efficiency  than  those 
shown  in  the  first  illustrations  in  this  chapter.  The 
writer  has  plowed  in  early  spring  when  the  plow  per- 
sisted in  becoming  more  rusty  every  day,  although 
the  moldboard  was  cleaned  with  a  wooden  paddle  at 
frequent  intervals.  As  the  season  advanced,  and  the 
ground  became  drier  and  firmer,  the  same  plow  would 
work  satisfactorily. 

For  several  years  the  moldboards  oi  plows  were 
hardened  in  hot  oil,  in  order  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulties that  were  met  with  when  only  the  outer 
surface  was  hardened.  This  was  a  fairly  successful 
but  very  expensive  method,  because  in  the  operation 
many  of  them  would  twist  or  crack.  To  overcome 
this  difficulty,  a  layer  of  steel  and  a  layer  of  soft 
iron  were  welded  together  to  form  the  moldboard, 
and  this  preserved  its  shape  during  the  hardening 
process. 

By  a  process  lately  invented,  moldboards  are 
made  of  three  layers  of  steel  welded  together,  the 
middle  one  being  soft  and  the  two  outer  ones  hard. 
Afterwards  they  are  shaped  and  heated,  immersed  in 
a  preparation,  varying  with  different  plow-makers, 
and  held  firmly  by  clamps  while  cooling.  By  this 
means  the  shape  is  preserved  and  the  tension  very 
largely    overcome    by  the    middle    layer    of    soft  steel. 


56  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

The  practice  of  carbonizing  or  chilling  the  face 
of  the  moldboard  of  both  steel  and  cast-iron  plows 
has  become  common.  To  accomplish  this,  several 
methods  are  in  use,  all  of  which  aim  to  harden  the 
face  of  the  metal,  and  to  cause  it  to  form  crystals 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  on  the  outer  or  wear- 
ing side,  while  preserving  a  soft,  laminated  structure 
on  the  opposite  side.  One  method  is  to  form  the 
lower  half  of  the  matrix,  which  is  to  receive  the 
melted  material,  of  iron,  and  the  upper  half  of  sand. 
The  metal  part  of  the  mold  into  which  the  iron 
is  run  causes  the  crystals  to  arrange  themselves  at 
right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  moldboard,  and 
also  hardens  the  forming  moldboard  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  thickness,  while  the  back  of  the  casting, 
which  rests  against  the  sand  of  the  mold,  remains 
soft.  This  process,  or  a  similar  one,  is  now  in 
universal  use,  and  plows  constructed  in  this  man- 
ner scour  better  and  are  more  durable  than  form- 
erly was    the   case. 

From  1861  to  1865,  and  for  some  time  subsequent 
thereto,  wages  on  the  farm  were  high,  and  the  plow- 
maker,  seeing  his  opportunity,  constructed  gang 
plows  :  that  is,  two  or  three  plows  fastened  to  one 
or  more  beams.  This  resulted  in  economy  of  plow- 
men, but  as  it  could  be  operated  only  by  able-bodied 
men,  it  was  quickly  followed  by  the  sulky  plow. 
This  not  only  had  all  the  valuable  qualities  of  the 
unmounted  gang- plow,  but  it  also  allowed  the  use, 
as  drivers,  of  women,  children  and  cripples, —  a  great 
consideration   in   war   times.       By  the  use  of    wheels 


Prairie    Stubble    Plow.  57 

a  large  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  plow  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  ground  to  the  axles  of  the  sulky, 
and  this  was  such  a  great  saving  in  power  that  it 
was  possible  to  make  a  plow,  including  the  sulky, 
of  three  or  four  times  the  weight  of  the  ordinary 
one,  mount  upon  it  a  plowman,  and  still  not  increase 
the  force  necessary  to  do  the  work.  Wherever  the 
fields  are  reasonably  large  and  the  ground  adapted 
to  their  use,  the  work  can  be  done  better  with  these 
implements     than      by    the     ordinary     walking     plow. 


Fig.  13.     Prairie  stul>l>]p  plow. 

Often  a  gang  of  two  or  three  plows  is  attached 
to  one  sulky,  and  drawn  by  several  horses  managed 
by  a  single  plowman,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  of 
laborers  materially.  This  method  of  plowing  has 
been  practiced  more  extensively  in  California  than 
in  any  other  state,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
eight  lusty  horses  attached  to  a  snlky  gang-plow, 
in  the  great  wheat  districts  of  the  Sacramento  and 
other    valleys. 

The  highest  development  in  the  plow  is  seen  in 
the  three  accompanying  pictures.  Fig.  13  represents 
a  steel  prairie  stubble  plow  without  clevis  or  rolling 
cutter.        Its    lightness,    overhanging    moldboard,    and 


58 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


broad,    flat   share,  which   enables    the    plow    to  cut   a 
sixteen -inch   furrow,  are    features  which   enable   it  to 


Fig.  14.    A  model  wood-beam  plow. 

perform  its  desired  work  with  ease,  cheapness  and 
efficiency  on  the  stoneless  prairies.  Figs.  14  and  15 
show  plows  built  on  much  the  same  lines  as  are 
shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  shares  are  not  so  flat  and 
broad,    and    the    moldboards  are    larger   and    not    so 


Fig.  15.     The  ideal  plow. 


overhanging.      The    plows    are    heavier,    and    in     all 
things  have   been    most    admirably    adapted    to    hard 


The   American   Plow.  59 

and  stony  land,  and  to  plowing  both  stubble  and  sod 
when    the  jointer   attachment   is  used. 

The  American  plow  has  taken  the  form  best 
adapted  to  fitting  the  land  cheaply  and  well,  without 
much  reference  to  straight  and  beautiful  furrows,  and 
hence  the  evolution  of  the  plow  in  the  United  States 
has  been  along  new  and  original  lines.  Discovery 
has  followed  discovery  rapidly,  the  plow -maker  can 
now  procure  the  best  of  material,  and  it  may  be 
said  that  no  other  country  produces  so  many  varie- 
ties of  plows  which  are  so  good  or  so  well  adapted 
to  varied  soils  and  conditions  as  America,  does.  As 
a  result  of  the  great  improvements  in  plows  of 
American  manufacture,  these  implements  are  now 
exported  in  large  numbers  to  South  America  and 
various    parts  of   Europe,    and   also    to   Japan. 

Through  all  these  centuries  how  slow  has  been 
the  evolution  of  the  plow  !  So  far  no  implement  has 
been  invented  to  take  its  place,  nor  has  any  success 
come  to  inventors  who  have  departed  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  combining  two  unequally  twisted  wedges, 
one  acting  in  a  horizontal,  the  other  in  a  perpendic- 
ular plane.  Whenever  the  farmer  will  consent  to 
furnish  more  power,  the  evolution  of  the  plow  will 
continue  along  the  lines  of  greater  depth  and  more 
perfect  pulverization  of  the  soil,  whereby  augmented 
available  fertility  and  increased  conservation  of  mois- 
ture will  be  secured. 

This  narrative  recalls  the  noble  words  of  Jethro 
Tull,  written  early  in  the  last  century:  "Men  of  the 
greatest    Learning  have   spent    their    Time    in  contriv- 


60  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

ing  Instruments  to  measure  the  immense  Distance  of 
the  Stars,  and  in  finding  out  the  Dimensions,  and 
even  Weight  of  the  Planets :  They  think  it  more 
eligible  to  study  the  Art  of  plowing  the  Sea  with 
Ships,  than  of  Tilling  the  Land  with  Ploughs ;  they 
bestow  the  utmost  of  their  Skill,  learnedly,  to  prevent 
the  natural  Use  of  all  the  Elements  for  Destruction 
of  their  own  Species,  by  the  bloody  Art  of  War. 
Some  waste  their  whole  Lives  in  studying  how  to 
arm  Death  with  new  Engines  of  Horror,  and  invent- 
ing an  infinite  Variety  of  Slaughter ;  but  think  it 
beneath  Men  of  Learning  (who  only  are  capable  of 
doing  it)  to  employ  their  learned  Labours  in  the 
Invention  of  new  (or  even  improving  the  old)  Instru- 
ments  for   increasing  of    Bread." 


CHAPTER   III. 

TILLING    THE    LAND. 

The  one  fundamental  labor  of  agriculture  is  the 
stirring  and  mixing  of  the  soil.  The  effects  of  this 
simple  practice  are  most  numerous,  complex  and  far- 
reaching,  and  the  problems  associated  with  it  seem 
to  be  beyond  the  comprehension  of  most  farmers. 
It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  man  who  is  in- 
tending to  gain  any  satisfaction  in  farming  should 
begin  his  study  and  thinking  at  the  handles  of  the 
plow,  for  this  point  is  the  very  threshold  of  agricul- 
ture. "In  general,  the  texture  of  lands  can  be  im- 
proved by  three  means,  —  by  judicious  plowing  and 
tillage,  by  the  incorporation  of  humus,  and  by  the 
use  of  underdrains*  The  value  of  simple  tillage  or 
fining  of  the  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its  pro- 
ductivity was  first  clearly  set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro 
Tull,  in  his  'New  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry.'  The 
premises  upon  which  Tull  founded  his  system  are 
erroneous.  He  supposed  that  plant  roots  actually 
take  in  or  absorb  the  fine  particles  of  the  earth,  and. 
therefore,  the  finer  and  more  numerous  these  particles 
are,  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant  will  grow.  His 
system  of  tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his  ex- 
periments   and    writings    have    had    a    most    profound 

•See  Cover  Crops  and  Liming,  pages  253  and  305. 

(61) 


62  The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

influence.  If  only  one  book  of  all  the  thousands 
which  have  been  written  on  agriculture  and  rural 
affairs  were  to  be  preserved  to  future  generations,  I 
should  want  that  honor  conferred  upon  Tull's  '  Horse 
Hoeing  Husbandry.'  It  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  modern  application  of  scientific  methods  to  agri- 
culture, and  promulgated  a  system  of  treatment  of 
the  land  which,  in  its  essential  principles,  is  now 
accepted  by  every  good  farmer,  and  the  appreciation 
of  which  must  increase  to  the  end  of  time.  These 
discursive  remarks  will,  I  hope,  emphasize  the  im- 
portance which  simple  tillage  holds  in  agricultural 
practice."* 

GENERAL    REMARKS    ON    PLOWING. 

The  land  produces  abundantly  if  left  to  itself, 
and  grows  steadily  more  fertile ;  then  why  should 
it  be  plowed  ?  We  shall  find  many  reasons,  if  the 
subject  is  carefully  analyzed.  Nature,  without  the 
assistance  of  man,  produces  but  few  fruits  and 
tubers  of  a  character  suited  to  the  exacting  wants 
of  civilized  man.  Her  only  effort  is  to  perpetuate 
the  most  suitable  species,  and  since  there  is  a  con- 
stant warfare  for  the  possession  of  the  soil,  vastly 
more  plants  are  usually  present  than  have  oppor- 
tunity for  the  highest  development  of  these  secon- 
dary or  incidental  features  ;  hence  the  parts  which, 
under  domestication,  become  edible  are  woody,  in- 
edible,    bitter,     or     wanting     in     flavor.       A     large 


♦Bailey,  "The  Texture  of  the  Soil,"  Bull.  119,  Cornell  Exp.  SU.  411. 


Objects   of  Plowing.  63 

object  in  plowing  is,  therefore,  primarily  to  destroy 
plants.  If  the  plants  are  large,  they  are  removed 
or  burned,  in  order  that  the  plow  may  have  oppor- 
tunity to  do  its  work.  The  plow  that  fails  to  bury 
ordinary  plants  deep  enough  so  that  subsequent  till- 
age is  not  obstructed,  does  not  accomplish  all  that 
it  should.  All  of  the  objects  which  may  be  secured 
by  plowing  are  seldom  or  never  kept  in  view ;  hence 
in  America  it  is  the  least  understood  and  most  im- 
perfectly performed  of  any  operation  of  preparing 
the  land  for  crops.  It  is  still  worse  in  Europe. 
The  Englishman  does  little  more  than  two  things 
with  the  plow, —  inverts  the  furrow,  and  makes  it 
straight. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  plowing  is  to  pulver- 
ize the  soil.  The  plow  may  invert  it  in  the  most 
perfect  manner  and  bury  surface  vegetation,  but  if  it 
fails  to  do  the  greater  part  of  the  fining  of  the  soil  as 
well  and  leaves  it  in  such  a  condition  that  the  har- 
row and  cultivator  cannot  complete  the  work  in  the 
clica pest  and  best  manner,  it  is  seriously  defective. 
Since  plowing  is  a  slow  and  expensive  operation,  and 
the  plow  is  by  far  the  best  implement  that  has  been 
devised  for  moving  and  inverting  the  soil,  for  de- 
stroying plants,  and  preparing  the  land  for  surface 
tillage,  and  for  loosening  and  pulverizing  it,  its  effi- 
ciency and  the  power  required  to  plow  become  of 
prime   importance. 

Since  only  10  per  cent  of  the  energy  required  to 
do  the  plowing  is  used  by  the  action  of  the  mold- 
board  even   with   those  having  a   fairly   short   twist,   it 


64  The   Fertility  of  the    Land. 

is  economy  to  break  and  disintegrate  the  furrow -slice 
to  the  greatest  possible  degree  by  as  bold  and  over- 
hanging a  raoldboard  as  possible,  considering  the 
character  of  the  land.  "About  35  per  cent  of  the 
power  necessary  to  plow  is  used  up  by  the  friction 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  plow,  and  55  per  cent  by 
severing  the  furrow- slice  and  the  friction  of  the 
land -side."*  If,  after  having  done  nine -tenths  of  the 
work,  the  plow  allows  the  furrow -slice  to  escape 
without  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  disintegra- 
tion, great  loss  is  sustained  because  the  bolder  and 
more  efficient  moldboard  may  add  2  or  3  per  cent 
to  the  draft.  To  effect  the  greatest  amount  of 
disintegration  of  the  furrow -slice,  the  jointer  or 
skim  plow  (see  page  67)  should  be  attached,  even 
when  plowing  stubble  land.  It  should  be  set  deep 
enough  to  break  up  the  tenacity  of  the  furrow  and 
to  prevent  it  from  kinking.  Even  tenacious  sod 
can  be  successfully  handled  by  the  bold  moldboard, 
provided  the  jointer  is  of  the  right  shape  and  set 
deep  enough.  On  very  tenacious  or  stony  laud,  the 
jointer  cannot  be  used  with  success,  but  happily,  stony 
land  is  not  tenacious.  The  proper  use  of  it  also 
prevents  the  furrow- slice  from  turning  over  too  flat, 
and  leaves  the  land  in  a  corrugated  condition,  which 
allows  the  implements  of  surface  tillage  to  take  hold 
of  the  crests  of  the  furrows,  and  break  and  fine  them 
without    disturbing    the    sod.      In    the     spring,     this 

*J.  Stanton  Gould,  Utica,  N.  Y..  Plow  Trial,  1867.  Leroy  Anderson,  B.S., 
found  in  extended  experiments  made  at  Cornell  University,  1890,  that  55  per 
cent  of  the  tot-al  draft  is  consumed  in  cutting  the  furrow-slice,  12  per  cent  in 
turning  it.  and  33  uer  cent  by  the  friction  of  the  sole  and  land-tide. 


Poor   but    Handsome    Plowing. 


6f> 


method  permits  the  land  to  absorb  heat  and  to  part 
with  excess  of  moisture.  It  also  buries  all  surface 
matter  so  that  subsequent  tillage  is  not  obstructed. 
In  fall  plowing,  beneficial  results  will  be  secured  if 
the  land  is  allowed  to  remain  corrugated.  Invert- 
ing and  fining   the   soil    is  at  best  a  tedious  and   ex- 


Fiu.   1(5.     The  complete  inversion  of  the  furrow-slice. 


pensive  process,  but  the  jointer,  intelligently  used, 
is  the  most  effective  attachment  that  has  ever  been 
invented  for  accomplishing  these  specific  results,  and 
the  more  general  use  of  it  cannot  be  too  strongly 
urged. 

The  three    accompanying    graphic    illustrations   will 
make  these  matters  plain.     Fig.  1G  shows  the  furrow- 


66 


The   Fertility  of  the   Land. 


slice  laid  too  flat,  and  left  with  the  soil  very  little 
disturbed  by  the  action  of  the  moldboard.  Plow- 
ing similar  to  this  used  to  take  the  premiums  at 
the   plowing  matches   held  at   the  fairs  over   the   bet- 


I 

Fig.  17.    The  furrows  standing  nearly  edgewise. 

ter  plowing,  as  shown  in  Figs.  17  and  18.  Fig. 
17  is  from  a  photograph  of  sod  land  plowed  with 
a  coulter  attachment  and  a  fairly  bold  moldboard. 
The  land  is  moderately  well  pulverized  for  one  ope- 
ration, and  is  left  in  a  fairly  good  condition  for 
efficient  action  of  the  implements  of  surface  tillage, 
but  the  plants  have  not  been  fully  turned  under. 
Fig.  18  is  from  a  like  drawing  of  land  plowed  with 
the  same  type  of  plow  and  jointer  attachment,  but 
with  a  somewhat  bolder  moldboard,  which  left  the 
surface  better  pulverized,  necessitating  less  surface 
tillage  than  in  the  former  case,  and  the  plants  are 
all    buried. 


Skim -Flow   <md    Bold   Moldboards. 


67 


In  rare  cases  it  may  be  best  to  leave  the  fur- 
row imperfectly  fined  and  at  a  somewhat  acute  angle, 
as  when  clayey  soils  are  plowed  in  the  fall  for 
spring  crops,  as  such  kind  of  plowing  allows  the 
water  to  descend  and  the  frost  to  act  upon  the  soil 
most  energetically.  The  land  might  then  become 
warmer  and  drier  in  early  spring  than  it  would  if 
plowed  as  in  Fig.  18,  while  the  tendency  to  puddle 
would  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Small  changes  in 
the  lines  of  the  moldboard,  even  though  scarcely 
perceptible  without  accurate  measurements,  produce 
widely  different    results. 

The  surface  tillage  which  may  be  necessary  to 
finish  litting  the  land  should  be  kept  prominently 
in    view   when    plowing.         The    manner    of     plowing 


Fig.  IK.     Ideal  plowing. 


sandy  and   friable    lands    matters    little    so  far   as    the 
total    cost    of    the  whole  season's   tillage   is  concerned 
but  on   tenacious    soils   the    plowing  often    represents 


68  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

not  more  than  one -third  to  one -fifth  of  the  cost  of. 
suitably  preparing  the  first  eight  inches  of  the  sur- 
face for  some  kinds  of  plants.  If  a  tenacious  soil 
covered  with  a  tough  sod  be  plowed  with  the  help 
of  a  colter  attachment,  and  the  furrow -slice  be  laid 
nearly  flat,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  fit  the  land 
well  until  the  sod  has  rotted  and  the  land  has  been 
replowed. 

In  England,  planting  is  seldom  done  until  a  deep, 
mellow  seed-bed  is  secured,  no  matter  how  stubborn 
the  soil.  The  subsequent  tillage  often  costs  far  more 
than  the  plowing.  The  added  labor  is  necessary, 
in  part,  because  the  colter  is  used  instead  of  the 
jointer,  and  in  part  because  the  furrows  are  laid 
nearly  or  quite  flat.  Plowing  is  poor  that  fails  to 
do  the  greater  part  of  the  rough  pulverizing,  and 
to  leave  the  surface  in  the  best  possible  condition 
for  the  effective  use  of  the  implements  which  are  to 
follow.  This  can  certainly  be  done  without  sacrific- 
ing any  of  the  other  benefits  which  should  be  secured 
by  plowing. 

The  old  couplet 

"  He  that  by  the  plow  would   thrive, 
Himself  must  either   hold   or   drive," 

has  become  obsolete.  May  not  the  following  be  sub- 
stituted for   it?  — 

He  that  would    good    plowing   view, 
Should  think  what   else    is   left  to   do. 

Inverting  the  soil  sometimes  results  in  positive 
injury  to  the  succeeding  crop  •,  when,  for  example,  the 


Inversion   of  Stubble    Land  69 

land  has  been  occupied  by  deep-rooted  plants,  that 
had  been  treated  to  thorough  and  continuous  surface 
inter -tillage*  during  the  greater  part  of  the  grow- 
ing season,  as  in  potato  cultivation.  The  cultivation 
which  is  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check  un- 
locks the  plant-food  near  the  surface.  If  the  plants 
feed  at  considerable  depth,  as  the  potato  does,  it  is 
evident  that  the  soil  does  not  need  inverting,  unless 
it  is  necessary  to  improve  its  physical  condition.  It 
is  also  evident  that  the  land  should  be  deeply  plowed 
and  most  thoroughly  prepared  prior  to  being  occu- 
pied by  deep -feeding  plants.  Except  on  light  lands, 
where  all  plants  are  likely  to  root  at  considerable 
distances  from  the  surface,  a  fairly  complete  inver- 
sion of  the  soil  is  desirable  if  the  previous  crop  has 
been  a  shallow  feeder,  because  the  readily  available 
plant -food  near  the  surface  has  been  somewhat  ex- 
hausted, and  hence  new  provision  should  be  made 
for   the  coming   crop. 

The  more  complete  the  inversion  of  stubble  land 
the  better.  Two  kinds  of  plows,  one  for  stubble  and 
one  for  sod  land,  are  needed,  if  the  work  is  to  be 
done  in  the  best  manner.  While  this  necessitates 
additional  expenditure  for  implements,  the  more  effi- 
cient work  and  saving  of  subsequent  tillage  fully 
compensate    for    it. 

* "  Interculturitl  tillage"  is  a  term  proposed  l>y  Sturtevant  to  designate 
tillage  between  plants  in  distinction  to  that  which  is  performed  only  when 
the  ground  is  bare  of  plants  (as  in  the  sowed  crops).  See  Conn.  Hoard 
of  Agric.  xl.  190  (1877-8)  ;  also,  an  editorial  in  Gard.  Ctaron.  May  28,  1887.  As 
tillage  is  a  better  word  than  culture  to  designate  the  stirring  of  the  land, 
"inter-tillage"  has  been  used  in  this  book  to  designate  tillage  between  the 
plants  — that   is,  ordiuary  cultivating,  hoeing,  and   the  like.— l..  H.  B. 


70  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

In  addition  to  improving  the  physical  conditions 
of  the  soil,  plowing  gives  opportunity  for  weathering, 
which  not  only  unlocks  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
brought  up  by  the  plow,  but  often  materially  assists 
in  fining  it.  Unless  abundant  fertility  is  present, 
or  there  is  readily  decomposable  vegetable  matter,  as 
in  clover  sod,  planting  would  better  not  follow  the 
plowing  closely,  as  time  and  surface  tillage  tend  to 
unlock  the  inert  fertility  brought  to  the  surface  by 
the  plow.  No  positive  rule  can  be  given  for  treat- 
ment of  soils,  as  climate,  crop  and  conditions  vary 
greatly.  If  experience  shows  that  turning  the  land 
over  is  advantageous,  then  it  should  be  done  thor- 
oughly, as  in  many  cases  great  benefit  will  be  de- 
rived from  so  fining  and  compacting  the  seed-bed 
that  capillary  attraction  can  bring  moisture  from 
below,  thereby  making  it  possible  for  the  young 
plants  to  avail  themselves  quickly  of  the  nourishment 
provided. 

Sometimes  it  is  easy  to  prepare  a  seed-bed  of 
one  or  two  inches  without  plowing,  and  the  young 
plants  may  start  off  vigorously,  but  if  the  physical 
condition  of  the  sub -surface  soil  is  bad,  capillarity 
feeble,  and  available  plant-food  deficient,  the  harvest 
will  be  disappointing.  If  the  surface  is  hard  and 
difficult  to  loosen,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  on  fall- 
plowed  land,  and  when  heavy,  dashing  rains  have 
run  the  soil  together,  it  is  usually  best  to  replow 
it,  so  that  proper  opportunity  may  be  given  for 
surface   tillage. 

Ever  since  summer  fallows  have  gone  out  of   fa6h- 


Fallows.  71 

Ion,  it  has  been  hard  to  convince  the  farmer  that 
more  than  one  plowing  may  be  required  to  bring 
the  land  into  proper  tilth.  Because  of  this  prejudice 
against  plowing  more  than  once,  a  varied  assortment 
of  implements  for  fining  the  soil  has  been  put  on 
the  market.  Some  of  these  implements  are  good, 
some  bad,  but  few  of  them  are  necessary  if  the 
plowing  has  been  well  done  and  underdrains  have 
performed  their  legitimate  work.  Formerly  the  land 
was  often  plowed  five  or  six  times  ;  now  the  pendu- 
lum has  swung  to  the  other  extreme.  The  slow,  labo- 
rious work  of  plowing  with  two  light  horses  and  a 
single  plow,  still  in  vogue  in  many  states,  is  dreaded, 
and  justly  so  ;  consequently  the  attempt  is  made  to 
prepare  the  ground  by  "scratching  it."  If  some  of 
the  western  farmer's  methods  could  be  adopted  on  large, 
level  fields,  and  six  or  eight  large,  strong  horses  har- 
nessed to  a  gang- plow,  the  objects  sought  might  be  at- 
tained at  the  lowest  cost. 

A  good  plow  is  capable  of  accomplishing  many 
results  in  varied  directions,  and  one  not  to  be  over- 
looked is  that  of  performing  the  pioneer  work  of 
breaking  up  intractable  land  while  preparing  it  in 
the  best  manner  for  the  efficient  action  of  the  imple- 
ments which  follow.  We  are  inclined  to  extol  the 
progressive  spirit  of  the  American  farmer,  and  speak 
slightingly  of  some  of  the  crude  and  laborious  meth- 
ods sometimes  seen  in  foreign  countries;  yet  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  the  plowing  is  seldom 
seven  inches  deep,  and  the  plowing  team  rarely  ex- 
ceeds one   or    two  light    horses   or    mules,  while    the 


72  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

sugar  planter  of  the  benighted  Hawaiian  Islands 
uses  a  double  gang  of  from  four  to  six  plows,  easily 
handling  furrows  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  broad 
and  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  deep,  and  one  or  two 
great  steam  engines  take  the  place  of  the  "cotton 
mule"  of   the  south  and  the  light  team  of   the  north. 

SOME    SPECIFIC    RESULTS    OF    PLOWING. 

Effects  of  plowing  on  soil  moisture. — Deep  plowing 
assists  the  downward  passage  of  water.  Sometimes 
the  soil  is  of  so  close  a  texture  that  water  passes 
but  slowly  to  the  subsoil,  the  land  becomes  puddled, 
cold  and  sour,  and  when  broken  up  is  difficult  to 
bring  into  good  tilth.  In  such  cases  underdrains  are 
necessary  in  order  to  reap  the  highest  results.  Bet- 
ter prevent  the  locking  up  of  plant -food  and  the 
formation  of  clods  by  underdraining  once  for  all, 
than  go  to  the  expense  of  breaking  clods  whenever 
the  land  is  tilled.  When  circumstances  make  it  in- 
advisable to  tile  the  land  at  once,  much  may  be  done 
with  the  plow  to  facilitate  percolation. 

In  theory,  all  water  falling  on  the  land  should 
be  made  to  percolate  through  it.  Practically,  this  is 
impossible,  and,  since  it  is  far  better  to  have  the 
water  carried  away  over  the  land  than  to  have  it 
stand  upon  the  land,  the  practice  of  plowing  in 
wide  lands,  with  dead-furrows  falling  in  the  same 
place  for  a  time,  is  to  be  recommended  when  there 
is  only  slight  danger  of  washing.  (See  "  How  to 
plow,"  page  90.)     Removing   surplus    water  from    the 


Plowing  Assists   Percolation.  73 

surface  prevents  puddling  to  some  extent,  and  thus 
indirectly  assists  the  downward  passage  of  the  water 
which  is  not  directly  carried  off,  thereby  keeping  the 
land  loose  enough  for  the  ready  passage  of  the  water 
that  falls  at  the  beginning  of  showers,  and  also  as 
sisting  in  arresting  and  preserving  the  ammonia  which 
the  rain-water  contains.  This  percolation  of  rain- 
water not  only  conserves  plant -food,  but  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  land.  Surface  drainage 
is  promoted  if  the  depressions  left  by  the  drill  or 
harrow  at  the  time  of  sowing  are  at  right  angles 
to  the  dead -furrows,  as  they  form  miniature  channels 
which  quickly  lead  the  water  away.  Clay  lands  that 
are  submerged  for  a  time  are  affected  more  by  drought 
than  those  which  are  not  submerged,  and  hence  the 
contour  of  the  land  should  be  so  shaped  by  the 
plow  as  to  assist  surface  drainage. 

Wherever  percolation  is  difficult,  comparatively 
shallow  plowing  should  be  done  in  early  spring,  and 
deeper  plowing  in  midsummer  and  autumn,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard-pan.  If  plowing 
is  continued  at  one  depth  for  several  seasons,  the 
pressure  of  the  implement  and  the  trampling  of  the 
horses  in  time  solidify  the  bottom  of  the  furrow ; 
but  if  the  plowing  is  shallow  in  the  spring  and  deep 
in  the  summer  and  fall,  the  objectionable  hard-pan 
will  be  largely  prevented.  This  is  especially  true 
where  the  winter  frosts  assist  the  downward  passage 
of  water  by  their  action  on  the  subsoil.  Since  fre- 
quent and  deep  plowing  materially  assists  percolation, 
we  have   another  reason    for  making   a   careful    study 


74  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

of  the  plow  as  a  factor  in  effecting  increased  pro- 
duction and  fertility. 

While  subsoiling  may  clearly  assist  the  down- 
ward passage  of  water,  the  expense  is  so  great,  and 
the  work  has  to  be  so  frequently  repeated,  that  it 
has  nearly  gone  out  of  practice.  If  the  depth  of 
the  furrow  were  increased  a  little  from  year  to  year, 
changing  it  in  time  from  six  to  ten  inches,  percola- 
tion would  not  only  be  increased,  but  other  bene- 
ficial results  would  follow.  If  the  little  plow,  turn- 
ing a  furrow  of  only  nine  or  ten  inches  in  width 
and  six  inches  in  depth,  could  be  exchanged  for  a 
plow  capable  of  handling  a  furrow  sixteen  by  ten 
inches,  and  the  two  900 -pound  horses  replaced  by 
three  horses  of  1,200  pounds  each,  the  necessity  of 
sub -soiling  would  be  largely  obviated,  and  the  cost 
of  plowing  would  be  diminished  rather  than  increased, 
wherever  the  fields  are  large  and  fairly  level.  The 
larger  team  could  get  through  three  acres  while  the 
smaller  is  getting  through  two,  and  thus  by  adding 
one -half  more  to  the  daily  cost  of  the  team  without 
any  increased  expense  for  plowman,  half  as  many 
more  acres  could  be  turned.  While  the  larger  plow 
would  do  better  work  in  many  respects,  it  would 
especially  assist  percolation,  increase  root  pasturage, 
and  enlarge  the  moisture -storing  capacity  of  the 
soil.  In  the  past  it  was  necessary  to  turn  only  nar- 
row furrows,  because  the  imperfect  plows  could  not 
pulverize  wide  ones.  With  the  improved  plow,  nar- 
row furrows  are  no  longer  necessary. 

Nearly   all  cultivated   plants    get   their    chief   sup- 


Capillarity    Promoted   by    Plowing.  75 

ply  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  and  this  faet  should 
be  kept  constantly  in  view  in  plowing  and  fitting 
the  land.  The  part  which  is  played  by  the  plow  in 
assisting  moisture  to  rise  by  capillarity  to  the  root- 
lets of  the  plant,  and  in  modifying  the  evaporation 
of  water  from  the  surface  of  the  land,  should  be 
thoroughly  understood.  If  the  soil  is  very  porous, 
the  air  circulating  through  it  carries  off  a  large 
amount  of  moisture ;  if  too  compact,  the  interstices 
in  it  would  be  so  largely  closed  that  capillarity 
would  be  weak.  In  neither  case  will  the  best  con- 
ditions be  obtained.  The  aim  should  be  to  secure 
those  physical  conditions  which  will  to  the  greatest 
extent  promote  capillarity  while  securing  other  desired 
objects.  To  accomplish  this,  the  soil  must  first  be 
made  fine  and  then  moderately  compacted.  Here 
again,  the  plow  plays  a  most  important  part,  for  in 
order  to  fine  and  solidify  the  soil,  the  earth  must 
first  be  lifted  so  that  the  inert  mass  may  be  twisted 
and  broken  up  into  small  particles,  when  it  may  be 
further  fined  and  compacted  by  other  implements  of 
tillage,  and  by  the  tramping  of  the  horses.  Water 
tends  not  only  to  rise,  but  to  diffuse  itself  through 
the  land,  moving  from  the  moister  to  the  drier 
parts,  and  every  opportunity  should  be  given  for  it 
to  do  so,  until  it  gets  near  the  surface,  where  it 
should  he  arrested,  unless  one  object  of  the  plow- 
ing  has   been   to  dry  the   land. 

Some  soils  are  so  porous  that  deep  plowing 
works  a  positive  injury,  unless  care  is  taken  to 
thoroughly   compact   the    soil    before    it  parts  with  its 


76  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

moisture.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  see  sandy,  clay,  dry  and  wet  lands  plowed 
and  treated  alike.     (Consult  Chapter  IV.) 

Drying  and  warming  the  land. — In  the  spring  it  is 
often  as  necessary  to  dry  the  land  as  to  conserve 
moisture.  In  some  climates  it  may  be  necessary  to 
plow  with  a  view  to  accomplishing  both  objects  in 
a  single  season.  If  the  pores  of  the  soil  have  been 
sealed  up  by  heavy  rains,  it  may  be  best  to  plow 
in  order  to  hasten  the  time  of  planting,  and  to 
give  opportunity  for  rapid  evaporation,  even  though 
the  land  may  be  somewhat  too  damp  for  the  best 
working  of  the  soil.  If  the  weather  is  cloudy  and 
the  surface  fitting  is  done  at  the  right  time,  better 
results  will  follow  such  early  plowing  than  if  the 
land  is  left  to  slowly  dry  and  form  a  stubborn 
mass  before  it  is  plowed.  If  the  land  is  damp,  the 
plowing  should  be  shallow,  the  surface  left  rough, 
and  as  much  breaking  up  of  the  furrow -slice  as 
possible  should  be  done  by  the  jointer  and  mold- 
board,  in  order  to  avoid  locking  up  plant -food  by 
partial  puddling  of  the  sticky  earth. 

With  some  crops,  as  corn,  warmth  in  the  early 
spring  plays  an  important  part.  In  such  casts 
early  and  shallow  plowing  is  valuable,  because  it  per- 
mits the  rays  of  the  sun  to  increase  the  temperature 
of  the  soil,  thereby  advancing  seed-time.  In  some 
localities  and  in  some  soils,  early,  shallow  plowing 
is  not  necessary.  What  has  been  said  is  not  to  be 
taken  as  advocacy  of  the  plowing  of  heavy  lands 
while  wet  ;   it   applies   only    to   emergencies,    as   when 


Various    Depths   of  Plowing.  77 

the  spring  is  wet  and  cold,  and  a  choice  must  be 
made  between  no  crop  and  only  a  moderate  one.  In 
the  case  of  inter-tilled  crops,  if  the  land  is  dried 
and  warmed  by  early  plowing,  planting  can  be  done 
at  the  proper  season,  and  opportunity  secured  to  re- 
duce the  stubbornness  of  the  seed-bed  by  after  tillage. 

Forming  a  hard-pan. — Porous  soils,  which  allow 
the  water  to  escape  too  rapidly,  are  improved  if  the 
plowing  is  so  carried  on  as  to  form  something  of  a 
hard-pan  at  depths  suited  to  the  character  of  the 
land,  the  climate,  and  the  plants  to^  be  grown.  If 
the  plants  are  deep-rooted,  the  solidification  should 
be  some  eight  to  ten  inches  from  the  surface  ;  for 
shallow- rooted  plants,  it  may  be  higher.  By  always 
plowing  at  one  depth  and  when  the  land  is  slightly 
wet,  too  rapid  filtration  may  be  somewhat  checked 
and  capillarity  increased,  while  in  heavy  lands  the 
aim  should  be  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard-pan 
by  occasional  deep  plowing.  Just  the  reverse  of  this 
may  often  be  desirable  in  light  lands,  as  in  some 
parts  of  New  Jersey,  where  excellent  crops  are  pro- 
duced from  year  to  year,  though  the  plowing  is  sel- 
dom more  than  four  inches  deep,  and  is  nearly  uni- 
form   from  season    to  season. 

Sioragr  capacity  of  the  soil. — Soils  vary  so  much 
in  weight  and  capacity  to  hold  moisture,  yet  remain- 
ing arable  and  in  good  physical  condition,  that  no  ac- 
curate statement  can  be  made  as  to  their  power  to 
take  up  or  to  hold  moisture.  An  acre  of  average 
soil,  one  foot  deep,  when  in  an  arable  condition  as  to 
dryness,  is  estimated  to  weigh  1,800  tons.     An  inch  of 


78  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

rainfall  brings  to  each  acre  113  7-16  tons  of  water. 
Soils  may  contain  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  water, 
and  yet  be  not  too  moist  for  cultivation  ;  yet  plants 
are  able  to  maintain  themselves  and  grow  when  the 
soil  contains  but  6  to  8  per  cent  of  moisture.  If  an 
acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep  weighs  1,800  tons  when 
it  contains  20  per  cent  of  moisture,  it  will  weigh 
1,557  tons  when  it  contains  but  7%  per  cent  of 
moisture.  Two  inches  of  rainfall  might  be  taken  up 
by  the  first  foot  of  soil  in  the  latter  case,  provided 
the  soil  had  been  well  fined  and  a  little  time  given 
for  the  water  to  diffuse  through  it,  and  yet  remain 
in  good  condition  for  plowing,  for  it  would  contain 
but  a  little  over  20  per  cent  of  water.  The  above 
estimate  takes  no  account  of  the  water  which  passes 
below  one  foot,  which  must  be  considerable  when  the 
rains  are  abundant,  although  the  soil  below  may  be 
tenacious.  These  figures,  based  partly  on  ascertained 
facts  and  partly  on  estimates,  need  not  lead  the 
reader  astray  if  properly  applied  to  the  conditions 
which  surround  him. 

If  the  plowing  is  but  four  inches  deep,  and  the 
computation  is  made  on  the  same  basis  as  before, — 
that  is,  7%  per  cent  of  water  present  in  the  soil, 
— and  a  rainfall  of  but  one  inch  be  added,  the  sur- 
face land  will  contain  23.8  per  cent  of  water,  and 
may  be  too  wet  for  cultivation ;  but  if,  as  before, 
two  inches  of  rain  should  fall,  there  will  be  present 
35.3  per  cent  of  water,  allowing,  as  before,  that 
none  of  it  has  passed  below  the  hard-pan  formed  by 
the  shallow  plowing. 


Water -holding    Capacity    of  Soils.  79 

In  order  to  still  further  emphasize  the  need  of 
deep  tillage  to  form  a  reservoir  for  the  storage  of 
moisture,  let  it  be  supposed  that  the  soil  is  in  a 
fine,  arable  condition  as  to  moisture,  and  contains  15 
per  cent  of  water ;  if  one  inch  of  rain  should  fall 
upon  the  deeply  tilled  land,  the  soil  would  then  con- 
tain 21  per  cent  of  water,  but  if  it  should  fall  upon 
the  shallow  plowed  land  it  would  contain  over 
26  per  cent.  The  case  is  still  worse  if  two 
inches  of  rain  should  fall,  for  in  the  former  case 
the  land  would  contain  28.9  per  cent  of  water,  and 
in  the  latter  35.7  per  cent,  an  amount  which,  in  soil 
not  full  of  vegetable  matter,  would  cause  it  to  move 
bodily  toward  the  lower  levels,  even  were  the  natu- 
ral inclination  slight. 

The  damage  from  water  held  near  the  surface 
does  not  end  in  the  loss  suffered  in  the  growth  of 
the  plant  and  work  delayed,  for  the  saturation  of 
the  surface  soil  results  in  sealing  up  its  pores, 
thereby  destroying  the  benefits  secured  by  fine  tilth, 
and  additional  labor  will  then  be  required  to  bring 
the  land  again  into  good  condition. 

Underdrains  and  deep  and  thorough  plowing  not 
only  diminish  the  tendency  of  clay  lands  to  run  to- 
gether, but  also  increase  the  storage  capacity  of  the 
soil,  and,  since  the  moisture  in  the  soil  is  all  likely 
to  be  wanted  some  time  during  the  growing  season, 
the  more  that  can  be  stored  up  without  doing  injury 
the  better.  It  has  already  been  shown,  in  part,  how 
to  enlarge  the  storage  capacity  of  the  soil  by  the 
use   of   the    plow,    but    there    are    many   other   factors 


80  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

which  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  plow 
to   perfect  its  work. 

Aeration  promoted  by  plowing. — If  the  soil  is  com- 
pact and  the  interstices  filled  with  free  water  or  sil£, 
it  will  not  contain  enough  air  for  best  results,  and 
therefore  plowing  for  the  purpose  of  letting  the  air 
enter  the  ground,  as  well  as  to  promote  drainage  and 
absorption  of  moisture,  may  be  advantageous.  The 
roots  of  plants,  like  fishes,  require  air,  and  although 
they  require  only  a  little,  that  little  is  necessary  to 
their  life  and  growth.  The  soil  always  contains  some 
air,  but  it  may  easily  happen  that  there  is  too  much 
near  the  surface  and  too  little  below.  In  the  first 
instance,  too  free  movement  of  the  air  in  the  soil 
would  rob  the  seeds  of  moisture,  and  they  would  fail 
to  germinate  and  grow.  If  there  were  a  suitable 
amount  of  air  in  the  surface  soil  and  a  lack  of  it 
below,  seeds  might  germinate  freely,  but  the  subse- 
quent growth  would  be  hindered.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  how  necessary  it  is  to  plow  deep  in  order  that 
the  land  may  be  converted  into  a  vast  reservoir  for 
the  storage  of  air  and  moisture  in  the  right  pro- 
portions. 

Although  little  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  rain 
from  entering  the  soil  in  too  great  quantities,  yet  by 
intelligent  tillage  the  amount  of  air  in  the  soil  may 
be  largely  controlled.  Aeration  not  only  promotes 
plant  growth  but  also  sets  free  plant -food,  for  upon 
aeration  both  chemical  and  physical  action  largely  de- 
pend. Thorough  aeration  of  the  land  can  be  ac- 
complished   only   by   deep   tillage,    which    may    result 


Aeration   and   Nitrification.  81 

at  first  in  too  great  aeration  and,  hence,  loss  of 
moisture ;  if  so,  the  compacting  and  fining  of  the 
land  by  surface  tillage  should  be  done  immediately 
or  soon    after   the  plowing. 

It  may  seem  that  too  much  detail  has  been  en- 
tered into  here,  but  it  should  lie  remembered  that 
it  is  the  common  practice  to  plow  the  entire  field, 
even  in  dry  weather,  before  anything  is  done  to 
smooth  and  compact  the  loose  soil,  through  which, 
if  not  quickly  compacted,  the  hot,  dry  air  circulates 
freely,  and  robs  the  land  of  needed  moisture.  After 
a  portion  of  the  field  has  been  plowed  it  should  be 
fitted  before  the  surface  dries  out.  In  the  fitting, 
the  sub -surface  soil  is  compacted ;  this  promotes 
capillary  attraction,  and  a  surface  earth -mulch  of  two 
or  three  inches  is  secured,  which  serves  to  diminish 
evaporation.  No  amount  of  fertility  can  produce 
the  results  desired  if,  through  carelessness  or  igno- 
rance, the  conditions  are  ignored  that  are  necessary  for 
the  passing  of  nourishment  from  the  soil  to  the  plant. 

Nitrification  promoted  by  plowing. — As  has  been 
shown  in  Chapter  I.,  the  soil  contains  large  amounts 
of  plant- food  of  which  usually  only  a  small  fraction 
is  immediately  available,  and  therefore  one  of  the 
objects  of  plowing  is  to  promote  nitrification,  or  the 
changing  of  potential  nitrogen  into  available  nitro- 
gen. For  the  cereals  and  other  nitrogen -consuming 
plants,  the  aim  should  be  not  simply  to  furnish  them 
with  a  full  supply  of  food,  but  to  furnish  the  nitro- 
gen, especially  during  the  early  stages  of  their 
growth  when  they  most  require  it.  If  by  the  stim- 
u 


82  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

ulating  influence  of  nitrogen  the  plant  can  be  made 
to  enlarge  its  root -system  when  young,  it  will  be 
able  to  respond  to  the  larger  demands  which  will  be 
made  upon  it  at  the  time  of  perfecting  its  seed. 
But  so  much  nitrogen  may  be  present  as  to  over- 
stimulate  the  vegetative  at  the  expense  of  the  repro- 
ductive or  seed -producing  system,  and  to  cause  the 
plant  to  grow  too  large  and  porous,  when  it  will  be 
likely  to  lodge  or  be  amenable  to  the  attacks  of  fun- 
gous diseases.  Little  damage,  however,  may  be  appre- 
hended from  a  surfeit  of  nitrogen  caused  by  tillage 
alone,  even  on  new  land.  In  the  effort  to  secure  avail- 
able nitrogen  for  the  plant  by  means  of  the  plow  and 
associated  implements,  care  should  be  taken  to  deter- 
mine whether  it  is  more  economical  to  utilize  that 
already  in  the  soil  by  extra  labor,  or  to  obtain  it 
through  leguminous  plants  or  from  outside  sources. 

In  order  to  promote  active  nitrification,  warmth, 
moisture  and  air  must  be  present  in  suitable  quanti- 
ties and  proportions.  Moreover,  nitrification  goes  on 
far  more  actively  in  the  dark  than  in  the  light.  One 
of  the  objects  of  plowing  should  be  to  bring  about 
the  best  conditions,  for  if  they  are  faulty,  nitrification 
may  be  feeble  or  entirely  arrested.  Considering  that 
nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  commercial 
plant -foods  when  purchased,  the  reader  will  at  once 
see  the  wisdom  of  economizing  home  resources  to  the 
utmost. 

It  should  be  said,  in  passing,  that  thorough  plow- 
ing liberates  mineral  matter  as  well  as  nitrogen,  and 
increases  production  in  various  other  ways.     It  divides 


Physical    Conditions    Important.  83 

the  particles  of  earth,  presents  new  surfaces  to  the 
action  of  the  roots,  and  hastens  chemical  changes. 

Physical  conditions  improved  by  plowing. — Plants 
may  be  said  to  travel  towards  their  food,  for  in  poor 
soils  they  form  attenuated  roots,  with  few  fibers, 
until  soil  containing  more  abundant  nourishment  is 
reached,  where  they  develop  an  abundance  of  feeding 
rootlets.  It  may  also  be  said  that  the  food  must 
be  brought  to  the  plant,  for  if  the  soil  that  con- 
tains plant -food  is  not  brought  into  intimate  and 
close  contact  with  the  roots,  the  plant  is  not  nour- 
ished. If  the  physical  conditions  of  the  soil  are  bad, 
necessarily  the  food  conditions  are  bad  also,  as  the 
action  of  the  forces  which  prepare  the  food  is  hin- 
dered. Good  physical  conditions  presuppose  that  the 
plow  and  other  implements  have  brought  the  soil 
into  good  tilth,  and  that  in  accomplishing  this,  nour- 
ishment for  the  plant  has  incidentally  been  made 
available.  Aside  from  all  this,  the  physical  condition 
alone  has  marked  effects  on  moisture  and  root -growth, 
and  hence  on  the  welfare  of  the  plant,  for.  the  roots 
penetrate  hard,  dry  soil  with  difficulty.  On  the  other 
hand,  roots  cannot  live  in  very  open  soil  unless  water 
is  abundant  and  constant, —  conditions  not  usually 
present    in  the  growing  season. 

Some  plants  are  more  likely  to  escape  the  vicis- 
situdes of  our  erratic  climate,  if  induced  by  good 
physical  conditions  of  the  soil  to  form  roots  at  some 
distance  from,  instead  of  near  to,  the  surface;  while 
others,  as  winter  wheat,  do  best  if  the  fall  feeding- 
roots  form  within  two  or  three  inches  of   the  surface; 


84  The    Fertility   of  1h<    Land. 

hence  air,  moisture  and  nourishment  should  be  asso- 
ciated in  the  best  proportions  and  at  the  right  dis- 
tance from  the  surface. 

Plowing  to  briny  fertility  to  the  surface. — When 
water  passes  down  through  the  soil  it  carries  gome 
fertility  with  it.  If  it  can  then  be  made  to  return, 
it  should,  in  part,  at  least,  restore  to  the  surface 
soil  what  would  otherwise  have  been  left  inert  in  the 
sub -soil.  Observant  farmers  are  often  heard  to  re- 
mark, during  a  dry  season,  that  the  following  season 
will  be  fruitful,  as  land  during  a  drought  becomes 
richer.  So  far  as  the  surface  soil  is  concerned,  this 
is  true,  for  the  water  which  passes  from  the  subsoil 
up  to  the  surface  by  capillarity  carries  with  it  some 
plant-food,  the  larger  part  of  which  is  nitrogen. 
A  part  of  the  water  thus  brought  near  the  surface 
evaporates,  and  leaves  behind  what  plant-food  it  held 
in  solution.  The  alkali  lands  of  the  plains  might  be 
cited  to  show  the  great  activity  of  capillarity  in 
bringing  soluble  material  to  the  surface.  By  irriga- 
tion the  deleterious  salts  of  these  lands  are  washed 
out,  or  rather  down,  and  the  soil  becomes  fruitful, 
but  if  the  land  is  not  kept  irrigated  the  salts  again 
come  to  the  surface  and  kill  the  plants.  Hilgard,  in 
his  report  on  alkali  lands,*  says  :  "  The  most  obvious 
remedy  for  this  evil  is,  of  course,  the  leaching  out 
of  the  injurious  salts  by  ditching  and  flooding,  or, 
if  possible,  by  underdraining.  This  method  is  habit- 
ually   resorted    to     in     sea -coast    marshes,     near    the 


♦"Alkali  Lands.    Irrigation  and  Drainage."    Appendix  to   Rept.  Cal.   Exj. 
Sta.  for  1880,  p.  27. 


The   Effect   of  Soil -crust.  8.1 

mouths  of  rivers,  after  the  salt  water  has  been  ex- 
cluded by  embankments.  *  *  *  When  the  alkali 
is  not  very  abundant  nor  very  noxious,  frequent  and 
deep  tillage  may  afford  all  the  relief  needed.  Beyond 
question  the  damage  done  by  alkali,  in  at  least  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  is  due  to  accumulation  at  or  near 
the  surface.  *  *  *  More  than  half  of  the  alkali 
land  in  this  state  that  the  people  are  afraid  to  touch 
requires  no  other  remedy  than  thorough,  deep  tillage, 
maintained  at  all  times."  I  cannot  forbear  quoting 
entire  his  illustration,  to  show  how  hard  and  soft  sur- 
t'.icc  soils  affect  moisture  :  "  The  dense  crust  absorbs 
water  much  more  powerfully  than  does  the  loose  soil 
beneath.  This  moisture  is  forcibly  drawn  from  the 
latter  into  the  surface  crust,  and  there  evaporates 
quickly  under  the  influence  of  the  air  and  sunshine, 
hardening  the  crust  more  and  more,  and  accumulat- 
ing therein  an  increasing  amount  of  alkali.  To 
illustrate  this,  imagine  a  sponge,  representing  the 
loose  soil,  to  be  saturated  with  water,  and  a  hard. 
burnt  brick,  representing  the  crust,  to  be  laid  upon 
it  ;  the  brick  will  take  all  the  water  from  the  sponge. 
Yet  if  the  brick  be  soaked  in  water  and  the  sponge 
pressed  on  it,  the  sponge,  representing  the  well-tilled 
soil,   will    not   take   up    a   particle  of    moisture." 

If  the  plow  and  the  dry  earth -mulch  be  so  used 
as  to  promote  capillarity,  they  will  indirectly  assist 
in  bringing  fertility  within  reach  of  the  plants. 
Thorough  tillage  tends  to  multiply  rootlets.  Plants 
which  have  numerous  roots  are  capable  of  taking 
up    more    nourishment     than    those    which     have    few, 


86  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

consequently  the  multiplication  of  roots  is  desirable, 
except  in  rare  instances  when  the  plants  make  such 
rapid  growth  that  they  fail  to  fruit  satisfactorily. 
The  root- pruning  of  plants,  so  largely  advocated  some 
years  since,  has  gone  out  of  practice,  and,  instead 
the  multiplication  and  preservation  of  them,  espe- 
cially the  smaller  ones,  is  now  in  most  cases  held 
to  be  desirable.  Plowing  not  only  promotes  avail- 
able fertility,  but  also  increases  the  area  in  which 
nourishment  may  be  found,  and  the  plant  responds 
to  its  environment  by  sending  out  feeders  in  all 
directions.  However,  should  the  conditions  recom- 
mended prevent  as  early  and  full  fruiting  as  desired, 
it  is  wiser  to  hasten  it  by  withholding  nitrogenous 
manures  and  fertilizers  than  to  do  so  by  neglecting 
or   mutilating   the  roots. 

Plowing  to  bury  trash. — The  object  of  plowing 
may  often  be  chiefly  to  bury  trash.  All  dead  and 
living  plants  and  coarse  manures  should  be  so  per- 
fectly covered  by  the  furrow  that  the  harrow  and 
cultivator  will  not  disturb  them,  or  become  ob- 
structed. If  the  furrow  be  narrow  and  shallow,  this 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  done.  It  is  true  that  there 
are  cases  in  which  a  shallow  furrow  is  desirable,  but 
a  narrow  furrow  may  be  avoided  if  the  plow  has 
the  proper  form.  A  chain  attached  to  the  beam  of 
the  plow  and  the  end  of  the  double -tree  will  greatly 
assist  in  burying  tall  plants,  especially  if  the  jointer 
can  be  used  in  connection  with  it.  Coarse  manures 
may  be  raked  into  the  furrow  in  order  to  completely 
bury   them,  but   with   suitable  plows  and  attachments 


Vegetable    Matter    Plowed    Under.  87 

this  expensive  method  of  accomplishing  so  simple  an 
operation  is  not  neeessary.  (See  "How  to  plow," 
page  90.) 

If  the  vegetable  matter  is  buried  at  some  dis- 
tanee  from  the  surface,  where  it  will  be  kept  con- 
stantly moist,  it  decomposes  more  rapidly  than  if 
left  to  dry  on  or  near  the  surface.  Coarse  vege- 
table matter  used  to  form  a  mulch,  should  be  spread 
upon  the  land  after  the  cultivation  has  been  com- 
pleted. Vegetable  matter  plowed  under  may  warm 
the  soil,  and  furnish  nourishment  for  the  plants 
after  what  has  been  set  free  by  tillage  has  been 
largely  exhausted. 

If  one  of  the  objects  of  plowing  is  to  bury  trash, 
it  can  be  accomplished  in  no  other  way  so  well  as 
with  a  strong  team  and  a  large,  fully  equipped    plow. 

TIMES    AND    METHODS    OF     PLOWING. 

When  to  plow. —  Land  should  be  plowed  when  in 
a  bad  physical  condition,  even  though  the  surface 
soil  contains  more  plant  nourishment  than  the  sub- 
surface does,  for  good  physical  conditions  are  quite  as 
necessary,  perhaps  more  necessary,  than  an  abundance 
of  available  plant -food.  Whenever  it  is  found  that  it 
is  difficult  to  set  free  plant-food  and  form  a  satisfac- 
tory seed-bed  by  surface  tillage,  then  the  land  should 
be  plowed,  notwithstanding  the  additional  expense. 

Climatic  conditions,  together  with  the  character  of 
the  land  and  crop  to  be  raised,  must  determine  to  a 
large    extent    whether    the    plowing    would    better    be 


88  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

done  in  fall  or  spring.  Clay  lands  in  some  cases 
may  be  greatly  benefited  if  thrown  into  high  ridges 
in  the  fall,  so  that  the  water  may  escape,  and 
weathering  may  destroy  the  tenacity  of  the  soil  and 
liberate  mineral  matter.  In  corn  stubble,  where 
there  is  little  danger  of  washing,  a  large,  deep  fur- 
row drawn  through  each  row  works  wonders,  and  is 
usually  more  efficacious  in  making  the  land  fine  and 
"early"  than  if  the  entire  area  is  broken  up,  for  in 
the  latter  case  the  soil  is  likely  to  run  together 
and  become  hard  and  difficult  to  fit  in  the  spring. 
Other  "open  land"  than  corn  stubble  may  be  success- 
fully treated,  as  the  winter  approaches,  in  much  the 
same  way,  by  plowing  one  furrow  and  skipping  nearly 
two;  but  in  no  case  should  two  furrows  be  turned 
together,  for  this  results  in  such  high  and  broad 
ridges  that  they  are  not  easily  leveled  by  the  harrow 
before  replowing  in  the  spring.  If  but  single  furrows 
are  thrown  up  instead  of  double  ones,  they  may  be 
easily  leveled  by  chaining  a  scantling  crosswise  under 
the  front  end  of  the  harrow  and  driving  lengthwise 
of  the  furrows.  The  treatment  advised  above,  as  well 
as  that  which  follows,  may  result  in  liberating  much 
plant-food,  and  in  so  improving  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  soil  as  to  make  it  possible  for  plants 
to  avail  themselves  of  it.  It  is  true  that  all  this 
implies  additional  labor,  but  if  soils  that  are  cold, 
wet  and  hard  to  fit  in  the  spring  can  be  made 
friable,  and  the  time  of  sowing  advanced,  may  not 
the  fall  plowing,  in  the  outcome,  be  advantageous  ? 
With  rare  exceptions,  autumn  plowing  should  be  done 


Early    Plowing    and    Sowing.  89 

early,  and  while  the  ground  is  fairly  dry.  The  work 
should  be  performed  when  there  is  most  leisure, 
unless  there  are  compensating  advantages  to  be  gained 
by  deferring  it,  as  the  cost  is  less  and  the  work  is 
likely  to  be  better  done.  Early  fall  plowing  is 
usually  beneficial,  even  though  shallow  replowing  is 
necessary  in  the  spring,  and  a  fall  "catch  crop"  has 
to  be  sown  on  light  lands  to  prevent  them  from 
leaching  during  the  rainy  months.  In  the  great 
wheat  districts  of  the  northwest,  where  the  winters 
are  dry  and  cold,  fall  plowing  should  be  and  is 
the  common  practice.  Weathering  of  the  soil  is  a 
more  economical  method  of  setting  free  plant -food 
than  surface  tillage,  and  when  certain  conditions  are 
present,  as  hard  freezing  and  light  rains,  and  when 
a  goodly  interval  comes  between  the  harvesting  of  one 
crop  and  the  planting  of  the  next,  it  can  be  prac- 
ticed successfully.  If  the  land  is  infested  with 
wire-worms  late  fall  plowing  will  destroy  many  of 
them.* 

Spring  plowing  is  best  done  early,  if  the  soil  is 
in  proper  condition,  and  it  may  be  done  even  when 
slightly  too  wet,  provided  some  little  freezing  fol- 
lows. Since  early  sowing  is  of  prime  importance 
if  plump  grain  and  bright  straw  arc  desired  and  rust 
is  to  be  prevented,  sonic  risk  may  be  taken  in  this  di- 
rection. On  damp,  rich  lands,  late-sown  cereals,  es- 
pecially oats,  are  likely  to  suffer  from  fungous  dis- 
eases, which  result  in  diminished  quantity  and  im- 
paired quality.      Ground    intended    for   tin'   production 

*For  the  treatment  of  wire-worms,  see  Bull.  3:i,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


90  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

of  maize  is  improved  by  early  plowing,  unless  the 
land  is  occupied  by  clover,  when  it  may  be  wiser  to 
defer  the  plowing  for  a  time,  in  order  that  the 
clover  may  make  some  growth  before  being  turned 
under.  In  this  case,  the  gain  in  the  growth  of 
the  clover  may  more  than  compensate  for  the  plant- 
food  which  is  liberated  by  the  early  plowing  and  the 
weathering. 

When  not  to  plow. — If  a  good  seed-bed  can  be 
prepared  easily,  and  the  surface  is  richer  than  the 
sub -surface  soil,  as  in  a  well -tilled  potato  field,  then 
the  ground  may  be  sown  to  grain  without  plowing, 
more  especially  if  the  preceding  crop  was  a  deep- 
rooted   one. 

When  the  land  is  producing  a  reasonable  harvest 
of  hay,  and  the  plants  are  perennial,  it  is  not  well 
to  destroy  them  and,  after  laborious  effort,  harvest 
those  of  less  value,  as  not  infrequently  occurs  when 
timothy  sod  on  clay  land  is  broken  up  and  planted 
to   maize. 

It  is  well  understood  that  it  injures  land  to  plow 
it  when  wet ;  it  is  not  so  well  known  that  land 
may  be  injured  by  plowing  when  too  dry,  for  if 
the  soil  becomes  very  dry  or  dust-like,  it  is  likely  to 
be  beaten  down  and  puddled  by  heavy  rains.  Land 
which  is  designed  for  fall  sowing  would  best  be  plowed 
at  least  one  month  before  the  sowing  takes  place,  as 
wheat  and  like  cereals  love  a  cool  and  compacted  sub- 
surface soil. 

How  to  plow. — In  midsummer  and  fall,  deep  plow- 
ing is  desirable  ;    in  early  spring,  rather   shallow  fur- 


Surfacp    Drainage   by    Wide    Lands. 


91 


rows  are  usually  best,  as  the 
sub -surface  soil  is  much  colder 
and  wetter  than  the  surface  soil. 
These  are  meant  to  apply,  of 
course,  to  the  management  of 
land  in  farm  crops,  and  not 
necessarily  to  orchards.  Ma- 
nures and  other  decaying  matter 
should  not  be  turned  under 
deeply  in  the  spring,  for  if 
left  near  the  surface  they  decay 
quickly,  and  the  roots  of  the 
growing  plants  are  able  to  feed 
upon  them  early  in  the  season, 
In  the  spring  the  land  should 
be  ''struck  out,"  so  that  the 
turning  at  the  ends  may  be 
towards  the  right  (or  the  left  with 
a  left-hand  plow),  that  no  tram- 
pling of  the  plowed  earth  may 
occur.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
season  it  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  land  loose  and  light,  in 
order  that  warmth  may  be  ab- 
sorbed and  moisture  evaporated. 
If  there  is  danger  that  evapora- 
tion will  go  on  too  rapidly,  the 
surface'  tillage  of  the  soil  should 
follow  the  plowing  closely.  While 
the  fining  and  compacting  which 
result  from  the  trampling  of   the 


m     i 


sj\- ,' 


92  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

horses'  feet,  when  the  land  is  dry,  is  often  desirable 
if  distributed  over  the  field,  solidified  places,  caused 
by  turning  at  the  ends  of  the  lands,  are  to  be  avoided 
in  the  spring.  It  has  become  far  too  common  to 
leave  the  field  with  few  or  no  open  furrows ;  this 
may  do  where  it  is  thoroughly  drained,  or  the  soil 
sufficiently  porous  to  allow  the  water  to  percolate 
through  the  subsoil  in  a  reasonable  time,  but  there 
are  many  fields  in  which  the  open  furrows  should 
not  be  more  than  ten  to  fifteen  paces  apart.  It 
is  not  difficult  for  a  skilful  plowman  to  leave  the 
surface  in  great,  gentle  swells  and  in  suitable  condi- 
tion for  the  passage  of  the  harvesting  machinery. 
On  clay  land,  where  damage  is  likely  to  occur  from 
water  standing  on  the  surface,  the  ridges  of  the 
lands  may  be  in  the  same  place  for  several  succes- 
sive plowings,  provided  the  two  furrows  of  which 
they  are  composed  are  not  overlapped,  and  the 
ridges  are  split  and  thrown  back  when  the  land 
is  not  in  sod,  and  the  open  furrows  are  partly 
filled  by  light  back-furrows  and  harrowings.  (See 
"Surface  Tillage,"  page   99). 

Plowing  "lands"  of  five  to  seven  paces  do  not  so 
effectually  di*ain  off  the  surface  water  of  nearlj-  level 
lands  (see  Fig.  19)  as  those  of  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  paces  do,  because  not  enough  water  is  carried 
into  any  one  of  the  dead -furrows  to  produce  a  cur- 
rent sufficient  to  overcome  the  obstruction  offered  by 
clods  and   friction. 

The  open  furrows  which  divide  the  narrow  lands 
(c,    d   and    e  )    have    stagnant    water    in    them,  while 


Flow   of    Writer   Increased. 


93 


those  (a  and  b)  which  divide  the  wide  lauds  are 
free  from  water.  Concentration  of  water  tends  to 
move  it,  division  to  bring  it  to  rest.  A  striking 
illustration  of  the  latter  is  seen  in 
the  cultivated  fields  of  the  south, 
where  the  cotton  ridges  are  laid 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  steep- 
est incline,  thereby  preventing  wash- 
ing by  too  rapid  fall  and  by 
division.  The  jetties  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi may  serve  to  illustrate  the 
principle  of  increasing  flow  and 
scouring  by  concentration  of  water. 
Usually  the  lighter  the  soil,  the  shal- 
lower the  plowing,  except  when  it 
has  received  liberal  dressings  of  barn 
manures,  or  has  acquired  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  from 
other  sources,  when  the  plowing  may 
be  done  as  experience  shows  will  give 
the  most  profitable  results.  In  mar- 
ket-gardening, three  to  five  cords 
of  manure  are  sometimes  applied  per 
acre  for  several  consecutive  years;  the 
soil  will  then  contain  a  superabun- 
dance of  nitrogen  and  humus,  and 
will  retain  moisture,  and  all  the  rules 
for  plowing  light  lands  may  be  broken  with  impunity. 
Thorough  and  deep  plowing  is  most  economically 
performed  with  a  large  sulky  plow  and  three  or 
more  strong  horses,  except  when  the  fields  are  small, 


Fig  20.  Diagram  of 
proper  arrange- 
ment of  driving 
lines  for  three 
horses 


94  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

irregular  or  hilly,  when  an  unmounted  plow  and  two 
horses  may  be  used  to  best  advantage.  Three  horses 
abreast  should  not  be  driven  with  double  check -lines, 
as  their  mouths  soon  become  sore  from  the  bits 
being  drawn  through  them  by  the  couplings  which 
connect  the  horses.  Two  extra  checks,  buckled  to 
the  double  lines  just  back  of  where  they  branch, 
will  allow  free  motion  of  the  head  of  each  horse 
without  disturbing  its  mates.  Fig.  20  explains  the 
arrangement  of  the  lines,  the  bits  being  represented 
by   B,  I,   T. 

Fast -walking,  strong  horses  not  only  get  through 
with  more  work,  but  do  better  work  than  slow- 
walking,  light  teams  do;  for,  within  certain  limits,  the 
faster  the  plow  moves  the  better  the  pulverization. 
In  stony  land,  where  a  slow  pace  is  desired,  it  is 
pleasanter  to  restrain  a  lively  team  than  to  urge  a 
slow  one  up  to  a  business  gait.  The  team  should 
be  able  to  draw  a  plow  at  a  rapid  walk  for  nearly 
five  hours  consecutively  ;  nine  to  ten  hours  of  actual 
work  per  day  is  all  that  should  be  required.  It  is 
bad  economy  to  sit  on  the  plow  handles  to  kill 
time  while  the  horses  are  storing  energy  to  proceed. 
One  may  know  how  to  plow  well  but  be  unable  to 
do  so,  if  furnished  with  a  spider- legged  team  which 
has  had  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  night  in 
getting  its  food  from  sorrel -covered  hillsides.  On 
fairly  level  fields  of  twenty  acres  and  upward,  four 
to  six  horses  may  be  used  to  a  gang  of  two  or  three 
plows,  and  the  plowing  will  be  done  cheaper  and 
better    than    by   dividing    the    teams   and   gang    into 


Wide   Furrows   and    Corrugated    Surface.         95 

three  separate  outfits,  requiring  two  additional  plow- 
men   to  operate. 

In  changing  potential  into  actual  plant-food,  econ- 
omy and  efficiency  both  demand  larger  fields,  even 
if  some  of  the  inside  fences  have  to  be  removed  and 
portable  ones  substituted  for  a  part  of  them  when 
needed.  The  width  of  the  furrow  should  be  slightly 
greater  than  the  plow  *can  cut,  as  it  is  easier  and 
better  to  tear  off  two  or  three  inches  than  to  cut  it, 
and  this  may  be  done  even  where  Canada  thistles  are 
present,  as  they  are  injured  more  by  having  their 
heads  turned  under  than  by  having  their  roots  cut 
off.  The  more  difficult  the  land  is  to  cultivate,  the 
more  corrugated, —  not  cloddy, —  the  plow  should 
leave  the  surface ;  this  is  especially  true  of  land 
likely  to  run  together  during  abundant  rains. 

Six  well -broken  horses,  either  two  or  three  abreast, 
may  be  driven  with  a  single  line,  as  is  done  in  Cali- 
fornia ;  this  may  also  be  done  with  a  single  three- 
horse  team.  When  several  teams  are  used  together, 
all  but  the  beam  horses  may  have  their  double -trees 
attached  to  a  chain  run  through  the  ring  of  the 
neck-yoke  of  the  beam  team,  or  each  horse  may  have 
his  traces  hooked  to  the  ring  in  the  hames  of  the 
horse  behind  ;  though  this  method  is  the  most  con- 
venient, it  disturbs  the  true  line  of  draft,  and  is  hard 
on  the  necks  of  the  beam  horses.  If  thus  attached, 
the  smallest  team  should  be  placed  at  the  rear  and 
the  largest  ahead. 

Line  of  draft  in  plows.  —  Both  the  English  and 
French   use    longer   traces    and    plow -beams    than    the 


96 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


Americans  do.  The  fashion  set  us  by  our  foreign 
ancestors  would  no  doubt  have  been  followed  if 
stumpy  fields  had  not  taught  us  that  short  traces 
and   plow -beams   are   more   convenient.      The   normal 

line  of  draft  is  at 
right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  the  horses' 
shoulders  and  in  a 
straight  line  from 
the  point  of  greatest 
resistance  through 
the  clevis  at  the  end 
of  the  beam  to  the 
point  at  which  the 
traces  are  attached 
to  the  hames. — 
Horses  appear  to 
work  easier  with 
short  traces,  because 
the  line  of  draft  is 
raised  at  the  hames.  If  the  work  is  at  all  severe, 
this  materially  helps  them  to  secure  a  firm  footing, 
while  it  relieves  some  of  the  friction  of  the  sole  of 
the  plow.  While  this  holds  good  with  unmounted 
plows,  short  traces  do  not  relieve  friction  when  the 
plow  is  mounted. 

A  piece  of  iron  sixteen  inches  long  and  five- 
eighths  inch  by  two  inches,  pierced  with  three 
holes  at  suitable  distances,  standing  vertically, 
makes  a  light,  handy  three -horse  evener.  This  is 
shown  in  Fig.  21      The   holes   of   all   eveners   should 


21.    A  handy  three-horse  evener  made  of 
liar  iron. 


The   Evener. 


97 


be  placed  in  line,  or  they  are  not  eveners.  If  the 
center  hole  is  ahead  of  the  end  holes,  then  the  weak 
or  stumbling  horse  that  falls  behind  has  the  short 
end  of   the  lever  (b  to  c,  Fig.  22),  and   must  do  more 


Fig.  22.    Diagram  showing  the  mechanics  of  the  evener. 

than  half  of  the  work  before  he  regains  his  position. 
If  the  evener  is  furnished  with  a  staple  at  the  rear 
side  in  the  middle,  and  the  ends  with  clips,  instead 
of   clevises,    as    is    quite   common,    then    the     reverse 


98  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

conditions  of  those  shown  in  Fig.  22  will  be  pres- 
ent, and  the  horse  that  falls  behind  will  do  less 
than  its  mate.  To  obviate  all  unevenness  of  an 
evener,  always  place  the  three  points  of  attach- 
ment  carefully   in    line. 

Narrow  furrows  have  always  been  recommended, 
as  it  was  believed  that  the  best  plowing  could  not 
be  done  with  wide  furrows  ;  this  was  true  with  the 
old,  imperfect  moldboard,  but  with  the  improved 
one  good  work  can  be  done,  even  though  the  fur- 
row be  two  or  three  times  as  wide  as  it  is  deep. 
The  wider  the  furrow  within  reasonable  limits,  the 
cheaper  the  plowing  can  be  done ;  the  same  holds 
true  as  to  depth,  since  the  power  to  draw  the 
plow  does  not  increase  in  the  same  proportion  as 
does  the  square  of  the  furrow -slice.  If  a  furrow  six 
inches  deep  by  ten  inches  wide  (sixty  square  inches) 
requires  200  pounds  of  energy,  400  pounds  will  not 
be  required  by  one  eight  inches  deep  by  fifteen 
inches  wide    (120  square  inches). 

Anderson  *  secured  the  following  results  from  a 
trial    of   drafts   of   plows  : 

Depth  of  furrow.      Aver,  width.        Sq.  in.  in  Aver,  draft.  Draft  per 

furrow.  sq.  in. 

7  inches.  12.74  inches.  89.18  35:5.9    lbs.  3.96  lbs. 

10      "  13.46      "  134.6  441.49    "  3.28    «' 

These  results  agree  in  the  main  with  those  secured 
by  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  1888  (Missouri  Bulletin  32). 

At  the  Utica  Plow  Trial,  in  1867,  the  increase 
was   found   to  be  about    10  per   cent    for   each    addi- 


*  Thesis  presented   to  Cornell  University  by  Leroy  Anderson,   B.S.,  18JMJ. 


Conserving   Moisture   by    Tillage.  99 

tional  inch  in  depth.  When  the  width  varied  and 
the  depth  was  constant,  the  following  results  were 
secured 


Depth  of  furrow. 

Aver,  width. 

Sq.  in.  in 
furrow. 

Aver,  draft. 

Draft  per 
sq.  iu. 

7  inches. 

10.9    inches. 

7(i.:i 

293.95  lbs. 

.-!.85  lbs. 

7      " 

14.04      " 

98.28 

:!<;:s.87  " 

:!.7    " 

7      " 

17.74      " 

124.18 

445.19    " 

:t.58  " 

SURFACE    TILLAGE. 

The  results  of  surface  tillage,  like  plowing,  may 
be  simple  or  complex.  The  prime  object  is  usually 
to  form  a  smooth,  fine  seed-bed,  but  unwittingly 
the  other  objects  secured  may  be  of  far  more  im- 
portance than  the  one  sought.  Seeds  which  are 
small  require  shallow  covering,  hence  they  demand  a 
seed-bed  made  extremely  fine,  and  which  may  be 
compacted  with  the  roller  after  seeding  to  prevent 
too  free  circulation  of  air  and  to  bring  moisture 
to  the  surface  ;  in  the  case  of  large  seeds,  which 
require  deep  covering,  the  surface  need  be  only  fine 
enough  to  induce  capillarity  to  bring  water  near  the 
surface.  Plants  which  throw  out  roots  near  the  sur- 
face should  receive  shallow  surface  tillage,  while  those 
which  root  deeply  may  have  deep  tillage.  The  aim 
should  be  to  prevent  the  water  from  rising  above 
the  earth    in  which  the  roots  are  feeding. 

A  corrugated  surface,  produced  by  deep  tillage, 
may  be  resorted  to  for  drying  the  land  in  extreme 
cases  ;    hence  it    is    just  the  reverse  of  what    is  desired 


100  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

in  dry  weather,  as  it  exposes  a  larger  surface  to 
the  action  of  the  wind  and  sun  than  a  smooth  sur- 
face does.  Surface  tillage  may  be  made  not  only 
to  conserve  moisture,  but  to  set  free  plant -food  ; 
if  the  plants  are  deep-rooted,  they  may  secure 
only  a  small  part  of  the  food  liberated  by  till- 
age. This  emphasizes  the  need  of  deep  plowing 
and  deep  surface  preparation  of  the  land  for  all 
tap -rooted  plants ;  with  shallow- rooted  ones  deep 
tillage  is  not  so  imperative.  Too  much  stress  can- 
not be  laid  on  the  necessity  of  superior  surface  till- 
age for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  mulch  of  fine 
earth  to  conserve  moisture,  and  for  promoting  filtra- 
tion of  water  and  the  easy  passage  of  moisture  up- 
wards to  the  mulch.  Whenever  heavy  rains  have 
produced  a  crust,  it  should  be  broken  up  by  tillage 
as  soon  as  the  land  is  in  a  suitable  condition,  that 
the  earth -mulch  may  be  restored  and  evaporation 
arrested.  The  philosophy  of  the  surface  mulch  is 
explained   in   Chapter   IV. 

Usually  the  mulch  is  not  preserved  long  enough 
in  inter -tilled  crops.  The  best  results  cannot  be 
reached  if  the  foliage  of  the  plant  is  not  kept 
healthy  and  active,  and  it  cannot  be  kept  so  with- 
out a  supply  of  moisture,  especially  during  the 
flowering  and  fruiting  period.  The  yield  of  inter- 
tilled crops  is  greatly  increased  if  the  earth -mulch 
is   preserved   intact   until   late  in  the  season. 

In  the  orchards  in  Sacramento  Valley,  California, 
the  trees  are  usually  loaded  to  the  earth  with  fruit, 
the  great,  broad,  green    leaves  of    one   tree   touching 


Tilling    to    Destroy    Weeds.  101 

those  of  its  neighbor,  and  yet  irrigation  is  not  prac- 
ticed, though  rain  seldom  falls  from  the  last  of 
April  to  the  first  of  October.  As  one  sinks  to  the 
shoe  latchets  in  the  soft,  dusty  earth  of  these  fruit- 
ful lands,  he  is  led  to  appreciate  the  power  of  cap- 
illarity to  bring  moisture  to  the  rootlets,  and  the 
efficiency  of  a  deep-earth  mulch  to  conserve  it.  The 
winter  rains  fill  the  subsoil  with  water,  the  deep, 
dry  earth -mulch  of  four  inches  or  more  arrests 
evaporation,  capillary  attraction  lifts  the  water  from 
the  sub -reservoir  to  the  rootlets  and  as  high  as  the 
under  surface  of  the  earth -mulch,  and  thus  by  scien- 
tific treatment  of  the  soil  the  orchards  are  carried 
safely    through    a    drought    of    five  months'    duration. 

When  the  object  of  surface  tillage  is  mainly  to 
destroy  weeds  and  grass,  then  it  should  be  given 
before  they  have  become  firmly  fastened  in  the  soil 
by  their  roots,  or,  still  better,  before  they  have  ap- 
peared above  ground.  Perennial  plants  are  likely  to 
live  through  the  year  and  appear  the  following  sea- 
son in  a  vigorous  condition,  if  allowed  to  form  leaves 
a  few  times  during  the  summer.  There  are  two 
periods  when  plants  may  be  most  easily  destroyed  : 
before  they  emerge  from  the  ground,  and  when  in 
blossom. 

Spring- toothed  implements,  or  those  of  a  similar 
character,  serve  best  for  destroying  annual  weeds  ; 
the  plow,  the  spade  and  the  mattock  are  best  when 
hardy  perennial  weeds  are  to  be  eradicated.  The 
scythe,  though  used  largely  in  lien  of  the  last-named 
implements,   is    never   an     entire    sueeess,    for    it    per- 


102  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

mits  some  growth  to  continue,  and  the  weeds,  though 
weakened,  are  not  killed.  Frequently  the  chief  bene- 
fit secured  by  surface  tillage  in  the  spring  is  at 
first  increased  warmth  ;  later  it  may  tend  to  prevent 
cooling  by  evaporation.  If  crops  are  inter- tilled 
every  ten  days,  all  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
inter -culture  may  be  expected,  as  more  frequent  till- 
age does  little  good  and  tends  to  arrest  growth,  as 
rootlets  are  broken  and  the  plants  bruised  unneces- 
sarily. With  shallow -rooted  plants,  as  maize,  the 
inter- tillage  should  be  as  deep  as  practicable  at  first, 
that  the  soil  may  be  prepared  thoroughly  before  the 
roots  have  entered  it,  and  shallower  later  on,  in 
order  that  the  rootlets  may  be  disturbed  as  little 
as  possible.  Tillage  should  not  proceed  so  far  as 
to  convert  the  soil  into  dust,  or  it  may  puddle  and 
bake  during  and  after  heavy  rains.  Inter -cultural 
tillage  is  most  economically  performed  by  the  use  of 
a  two -horse  team  and  wheel  cultivator. 

Implements  for  surface  tilling. — The  roller  may 
greatly  facilitate  the  fitting  of  the  land  in  two 
ways,  by  so  compacting  it  that  other  implements 
act  effectually,  and  by  breaking  clods.  Rolling  after 
the  seeding  hastens  germination  in  dry  weather,  be- 
cause it  increases  the  capillarity  of  the  soil  by  com- 
pacting it  and,  therefore,  brings  moisture  to  the  very 
surface.  In  the  spring,  the  rolling  of  heavy  lands  will 
be  detrimental  if  abundant  rains  should  follow,  but 
beneficial  if  dry  weather  follows.  The  roller  may 
be  used  in  many  ways  to  assist,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, in  securing  the  objects   sought ;   viz,  liberation 


Broad   vs.    Narrow   Harrows.  103 

of  plant -food,  improvement  of  physical  conditions, 
increasing  of  capillarity  at  the  surface,  hastening 
germination  of  small  seeds,  and  preparing  a  smooth 
surface.  The  roller  is  a  useful  implement,  but  it 
requires  good  judgment  and  some  experience  to  know 
when    and   where    to    use    it. 

Plankers  are  often  more  efficacious  in  fining  and 
filling  the  interstices  of  the  surface  soil  than  rollers 
are,  for  instead  of  pushing  the  clods  into  the  soft 
soil  they  grind  them,  and  leave  the  surface  smooth 
and    fine    for    the    reception    of    small    seeds. 

Harrowing  tools  may  be  classified  under  three 
general  heads  :  those  which  tend  to  press  the  soil 
down  while  fining  it,  those  which  tend  to  lift  it  up, 
and  those  which  tend  to  slice  it.  Of  the  first  class, 
the  harrow  or  drag  may  be  cited.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  harrow  may  be  defined  as  the  implement 
in  which  the  teeth  project  so  far  through  the  frame 
that  its  bars  do  not  level  or  grind  the  clods,  while 
in  the  drag  the  teeth  are  short  and  the  bars  serve 
to  grind  and  level  the  soil.  In  most  eases,  the 
latter  implement  is  to  be  preferred,  since  in  any  case 
the  teeth  do  not  enter  the  soil  but  a  little  way. 
Long  teeth  are  objectionable,  as  they  tend  to  clog, 
and  prevent  the  harrow  from  doing  a  part  of  its 
legitimate  work.  There  are  many  reasons  why  the 
harrow  should  be  spread  over  a  large  surface,  the 
chief  of  which  are  that  it  runs  steadier,  is  less  likely 
to  become  obstructed,  and  does  •  not  so  easily  dodge 
the  hard  places.  It  also  is  more  efficient  in  level- 
ing the  inequalities  than  a  compactly  built    harrow  is, 


104 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


and  much  ground  may  be  gotten  over  where  only 
a  light  harrowing  is  desired,  while  in  rough  ground 
a  half  lap  may  be  taken  or  the  ground  gone  over 
twice,  thus  increasing  efficiency  by  attacking  the 
clods  from  two  directions.  The  common  harrow 
may   not   only   be    spread   over    a   large  area    to   ad- 


Fig.  23.    A  good  gang-plow  for  shallow  tilling. 

vantage,  but  it  is  best  when  made  large  and  heavy. 
One  has  only  to  observe  how  inefficient  the  half  of 
a  harrow  is  when  used  alone,  to  be  convinced  that 
it  is  economy  to  use  large  ones.  Those  which  are 
mounted  on  wheels  are  more  efficient  than  those 
which  are  not,  as  they  run  more  steadily  and  are 
more  readily  managed. 

The    second    class     comprises     the    spring -toothed 


Tillage    Implements.  105 

harrows,  which  are  really  cultivators,  and  should  be 
classed  with  them.  The  action  of  the  third  class  — 
as  the  "Acme" — somewhat  resembles  that  of  the 
plow,  since  it  first  cuts  and  then  grinds  the  soil. 
The  land  and  the  condition  in  which  it  is  left  by 
the  plow  vary  so  widely  that  it  is  difficult  to  fore- 
roll  which  of  these  classes  of  implements  will  be 
most  efficient    for  the   power   expended. 

Cultivators  are  of  numberless  patterns. — In  the 
west  the  teeth  of  these  implements  are  usually 
made  with  a  flat  or  flatfish  surface  in  front,  while 
in  the  east  they  usually  have  a  rounded  front.  The 
former  are  by  far  the  most  efficient,  as  they  compel 
one  portion  of  the  soil  to  grind  another  by  the 
sharp  contact  necessary  to  push  the  soil  to  the 
right  and  left,  while  the  rounded  tooth  allows  the 
earth  to  escape  with  less  pulverization.  Most  cul- 
tivators fail  to  cut  and  destroy  all  tough,  tap -rooted 
plants,  as  Canada  thistles  and  docks.  Wherever  a 
gang-plow  especially  made  for  shallow  tillage  can 
be  substituted  for  them,  the  work  will  be  more 
satisfactorily  performed.  Three  small  mounted  mold- 
boards,  with  share  attached  to  each,  cutting  ten 
inches  wide  and  three  to  four  inches  deep,  make  a 
most  efficient  implement  in  many  cases  for  preparing 
a  seed-bed.  (See  Fig.  23.)  There  are  many  other 
implements  adapted  to  local  conditions  and  special 
crops  which  may  be  made  to  assist  in  preparing  the 
soil  and  in    liberating  fertility. 

It  is  believed  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when   wheat,  oats   and   barley,    and    indeed    all   grains 


106  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

that  are  now  broadcasted  or  drilled,  will  receive  in- 
ter-cultural tillage  similar  to  that  now  given  to 
maize,  and  this  will  not  be  by  hand,  as  in  some 
portions  of  Europe,  but  by  horse-hoe  tillage.  It  is 
fully  realized  that  two  to  three  times  as  much  seed 
is  now  sown  as  is  necessary  to  produce  a  maximum 
crop,  were  it  not  necessary  to  crowd  out  and  re- 
press the  weeds  by  thick  seeding.  When  too  many 
plants  are  present  they  unnecessarily  rob  the  soil  of 
plant -food,  and  especially  of  moisture  ;  hence  all  the 
plants  are  dwarfed,  and  notwithstanding  their  vast 
number  the  yield  is,  as  in  wheat,  reduced  to  less 
than  one -half  of  a  moderate  crop,  and  one -third  of 
what  might  be  secured  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions. 

The  unsatisfactory  results  secured  during  the  last 
few  years  by  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  with  one 
of  the  cereal  crops  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
practice  will  sooner  or  later  have  to  be  discontinued. 
In  fact,  the  practice  of  plowing  and  fitting  the  stub- 
ble lands  in  August,  and  of  sowing  grass  and  clover 
without  an  associate  crop,  has  been  adopted  in  many 
cases.  The  results  reached  by  this  method  are  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  as  a  full  crop  of  hay  is  secured 
the  following  year.  Heretofore,  the  objection  to  seed- 
ing without  an  associate  crop  has  been  urged  that  one 
season  or  crop  was  lost.  Since  the  lesson  of  pre- 
paring the  soil  thoroughly  and  of  sowing  early  has 
been  better  learned,  this  objection  has  been  entirely 
overcome,  so  it  is  probable  that  on  small  areas  on 
high-priced    land,    the   yield   per   acre   of   wheat    and 


The    Farmer's    Chief  Aim.  107 

similar  crops  will  be  more  than  doubled  by  some 
method  of  inter -cultural  tillage,  and  that  the  practice 
of  early  fall  seeding  to  grass  and  clover  without  an 
associate   crop  will  become  more  and  more  common. 

He  who  has  spent  but  a  single  summer  toiling 
long  days  in  the  fierce  sun,  stubbing  his  toes  against 
the  numerous  clods  and  stones  while  wiping  his  brow 
of  the  sweat  and  dust  will,  it  is  hoped,  catch  the 
spirit  of  this  long  chapter,  in  which  the  aim  has 
been  to  show  how  toil  may  be  changed  into  inspiring 
and  wisely  directed  work,  and  how  the  dull  clods  of 
earth  may  be  transformed  into  joyous  life  by  the  least 
expenditure  of  physical  exertion. 

In  all  this  effort,  the  object  should  be  to  more 
wisely  direct  the  forces  of  nature,  in  order  that 
larger  and  more  beneficial  results  may  be  secured 
with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  human  muscle. 
There  are  vast  dormant  energies — animal  muscle, 
steam  and  water,  electricity  —  which,  when  well  di- 
rected, may  so  greatly  case  the  burdens  of  rural 
life  as  to  make  the  farm  a  pleasure,  even  though  the 
actual  cost  of  the  operations  may  not  be  reduced. 
If  the  introduction  of  the  reaping  machine  had  been 
of  no  value  in  farm  economy,  the  invention  would 
still  have  been  worth  the  while,  because  of  the 
mental  uplift  which  it  gives  the  farmer's  boy  who 
learns   how   to   manage   it. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CONSERVATION  OF   MOISTURE. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  reference  has  frequently 
been  made  to  the  conservation  or  saving  of  mois- 
ture, the  capillarity  of  the  soil,  and  the  earth-mulch. 
It  will  now  be  profitable  to  enquire  more  specifically 
into  these  matters.  To  the  careful  observer,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  cultivated  plants  suffer  far  more  from  lack 
of  moisture  than  from  lack  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  in  the  soil ;  that  is  to  say,  nearly  all 
soils  would  respond  to  tillage  in  a  most  satisfactory 
manner  were  there  an  ample  supply  of  moisture  for 
the  use  of  the  plants  at  all  times.  This  is  so  self- 
evident  that  it  need  not  be  illustrated  or  proved. 
Then,  without  hesitation  or  modification,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  problem  of  providing  a  suitable  supply 
of  moisture  for  growing  plants  should  be  carefully 
considered  when  a  study  is  made  of  the  science  and 
art  of  agriculture.  Tons  of  farm  products  lay  rot- 
ting along  the  Ohio  river  a  few  years  since  because 
the  water  was  so  low  that  they  could  not  be  carried 
to  the  market.  Tons  of  plant -food  remain  unused 
and  useless  in  the  soil  of  the  farm  for  lack  of  mois- 
ture to  transport  the  waiting  nourishment  into  the 
living  plants.     It  can  hardly   be   too   strongly  empha- 

(108) 


Moisture   of  Prime   Importance.  109 

sized  that  the  subject  of  moisture,  how  to  secure  it, 
how  to  conserve  it,  and  how  to  use  it,  is  the  one 
that  should  receive  the  most  scientific,  the  most  care- 
ful and  persistent  investigation  that  the  farmer  is 
able  to  give,  for  without  moisture  nothing  can  pass 
into  or  out  of  circulation. 

The  gist  of  the  whole  matter  is  this  :  The  soil 
is  a  sponge,  holding  water  by  capillary  attraction  ; 
in  dry  weather  the  moisture  passes  upward  by 
capillary  movement,  the  water  from  below  taking  the 
place  of  that  which  evaporates  from  the  surface  ;  the 
rate  of  this  upward  flow  depends  greatly  upon  the 
compactness  or  capillary  continuity  of  the  soil  ;  if 
some  non- capillary  body  is  placed  on  the  soil,  evap- 
oration is  checked  ;  this  non -capillary  body  may  be 
a  mulch  of  straw  or  manure,  or  better,  a  mulch  of 
loose  dry  soil, — the  "earth-mulch"  of  which  we  have 
spoken. 

If  water  is  allowed  to  flow  off  the  field  and 
forest  unnecessarily  when  it  is  abundant,  it  cannot 
be  returned  except  by  expensive  appliances  and  much 
labor.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  it 
is  wiser  to  store  and  hold  back  the  moisture  in  the 
soil  to  the  point  at  which,  if  more  were  stored,  it 
would  be  injurious.  It  has  already  been  shown  how 
the  moist nrc -storage  capacity  of  the  soil  can  be  in- 
creased without  injury  to  its  productive  power  by 
deep  tillage.  Something  has  also  been  said  inciden- 
tally on  the  conservation  of  moisture.  There  are 
various  methods,  one  or  all  of  which  are  always  at 
hand,    by   which    both    water    and   moisture    may    be 


110  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

saved  or  economized  for  the  use  of  growing  plants 
throughout   the  season. 

Shading  by  cutting  off  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
reduces  evaporation,  and  may  indirectly  slightly  in- 
crease the  capillary  action  of  the  soil,  thereby  ena- 
bling it  to  bring  up  more  moisture  from  below,  and 
also  preventing  the  excessive  evaporation  of  it  from 
the  surface.  Brush,  leaves,  maize  stalks,  and  other 
refuse  material,  and  even  fine  earth,  act  most  benefi- 
cially when  spread  thinly  on  the  dry,  semi -bare 
knobs  of  the  grass  fields.  While  it  is  not  advisable 
to  attempt  to  conserve  moisture  on  any  large  areas 
by  the  use  of  these  materials,  yet  full  success  is  only 
secured  by  making  good  use  of  the  small  things  as 
well  as  the  large  ones.  Many  an  unsightly  place  in 
the  lawn  could  be  improved  if  a  few  seeds  were 
sown  and  the  sod  covered  lightly  with  fine,  rich 
earth.  Many  a  bare  place  in  the  hilly  pasture  could 
in  like  manner  be  healed,  if  brush  were  used  to 
partially  shade  the  land  and  to  prevent  the  animals 
from  grazing  the  grass  too  closely.  In  all  these 
and  similar  cases,  conserving  the  moisture  may  give 
more  satisfactory  results,  all  things  considered,  than 
expensive   manuring   or   irrigation. 

A  light  mulch  of  fine  manure  on  meadow  land 
may  not  only  conserve  moisture,  but  also  furnish  ac- 
ceptable plant-food.  It  can  be  readily  understood 
that  if  pasture  lauds  are  not  fully  covered  with 
herbage,  there  will  be  unnecessary  loss  of  moisture 
where  the  bare  spots  occur,  be  they  ever  so  small. 
Then,    to    secure    the    greatest     benefit    from    stored 


Effects   of   Thick   and    Thin  Seeding.  Ill 

moisture,  the  entire  surface  should  be  shaded  with 
plants.  If  there  are  numerous  small  bare  spots  in 
the  pasture,  moisture  escapes  without  passing  through 
the  plants.  If  there  are  too  many  plants  present, 
there  may  not  be  enough  moisture  for  the  multi- 
tude; if  so,  the  plants  fail  to  make  a  normal  growth, 
and   are  dwarfed   in    size  and    injured   in    quality. 

The  herbage  on  the  ungrazed  mowing  lands  soon 
becomes  tall  enough  to  shade  the  land,  although  the 
plants  are  or  should  be  less  than  half  as  numerous 
as  on  the  pasture  lands.  Many  permanent  meadows- 
have  too  many  plants  ;  most  pastures  have  too  few 
plants.  It  may  be  said  that  a  meadow  thickly  seeded 
furnishes  a  larger  per  cent  of  leaves  to  stalk  than 
one  only  moderately  seeded.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  be  said  that  leaves  grown  in  a  dense  shade  are 
poor  in  quality,  deficient  in  aromatic  oils,  and  are 
less  valuable  than  seed -stalks  and  blossoms  grown 
in  the  sunlight.  One  has  but  to  taste  an  apple  from 
off  the  lower  branch  of  a  tree  and  one  from  the 
sunlit  top,  to  fully  appreciate  what  effect  sunshine 
lias  on  the  quality  of  plants  and  their  fruits.  In 
the  pasture,  no  matter  how  thick  the  plants  may  be, 
all  receive,  on  account  of  their  diminutive  size,  suf- 
ficient sunshine,  yet  it  is  quite  possible  to  have  so 
many  plants,  even  in  the  pasture,  that  there  may  be 
an    undue  struggle   for    moisture  and    existence. 

Mulching  on  a  large  scale  with  coarse  manure 
and  refuse  material  in  inter- tilled  crops,  as  berries. 
orchard  trees,  and  the  like,  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
for  it  tends  to   obstruct  tillage,  encourages  the  growth 


112 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


of  weeds,  and  induces  the  plants  to  feed  too  near 
the  surface,  in  which  case  they  suffer  from  drought 
and  severe  freezing  whenever  the  mulch  is  removed 
or  has  decaved.     The  cost  of   such  mulch  is  so  great, 


Fig.  24.    Photograph  of  a  cross-section  of  soil,  showing  the  compacted  under 
soil  or  sub-surface,  and  the  earth-mulch  on  top. 

as  compared  with  one  of  earth,  that  it  Should  not 
be  adopted  except  on  areas  too  diminutive  for  horse 
tillage. 

Moisture    may    also    be   conserved,     especially    on 


Capillarity    of   Soils. 


113 


light  lands,  by  adding  humus,  or  vegetable  matter 
to  the  soil,  since  it  increases  capillarity  and  the 
moisture -storing  capacity  of   the  land. 

The    most    satisfactory  and    universally  applicable 
method   of    conserving   moisture,  however,  is    that   of 


Kijj.  '.25.     Photograph  show-inn  n  Bec-tion  of  soil  not  fined  nor  compacted  below 


a  soft  earth -mulch.  Fig.  24  represents  a  deep  earth- 
mulch  resting  on  soil  well  fined  and  compacted. 
Fig.  25  shows  a  clayey  soil  freshly  plowed,  not  com- 
pacted or  fined  except  at  the  surface.  It  is  evident 
that  in  the  second  case  no  moisture  can  rise  by  cap- 
illarity   from    the    subsoil     towards    the    surface,    and 


114  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

it  is  also  evident  that  the  air  may  circulate  with 
too  much  freedom  through  the  plowed  soil,  and  rob 
it  of  the  moisture  which  it  contained  when  plowed. 
Fig.  25  fitly  represents  the  condition  of  clayey  fields 
which  are  plowed  dry  in  mid- September,  harrowed 
lightly,  sowed  to  wheat  or  rye,  and  rolled.  Were  it 
not  for  the  heavy  rains  during  the  fall,  lands  prepared 
in  this  way  would  give  more  meager  results  than 
they  do.  If  rains  come  early  and  are  abundant,  the 
capillary  power  of   the  soil  may  be  partially  restored. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  accurately  just  how  com- 
pact the  sub -surface  soil  should  be,  or  how  deep  or 
how  fine  the  surface,  but  some  general  rules  and 
illustrations  may  help  to  guide  the  judgment  when 
deciding  these  difficult  points,  which  become  doubly 
difficult  when  applied  to  various  conditions  and  when 
widely  differing   results   are  desired. 

Light  and  sandy  soils  have  but  feeble  power  to 
hold  moisture  and  to  furnish  it  to  the  growing 
plants.  Their  power  to  do  this  work  is  increased  by 
a  most  thorough  solidification  of  the  sub -surface  soil. 
As  a  rule,  these  are  the  soils  which  are  solidified  the 
least  by  tillage,  since  they  can  be  made  fine  and 
smooth  and  put  in  an  apparently  good  condition 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  tillage.  The  productive 
power  of  this  class  of  lands  is  increased  quite  as 
much  by  frequent  rollings,  harro wings  and  tramp- 
ings  as  that  of  the  more  tenacious  soils  is.  On  all 
lands  which  do  not  run  together  when  wet,  no  dam- 
age, but  rather  benefit,  may  be  expected  from  fre- 
quent  surface    tillage.       Clayey   soils   usually   require 


Banger  of  Soil   Puddling.  115 

extra  surface  tillage  to  bring  them  into  proper  phys- 
ical condition,  but  if  the  soil  be  dryish  the  earth- 
mulch  may  become  so  fine,  and  even  dusty,  by  till- 
age as  to  be  seriously  puddled  by  dashing  or  long- 
continued  rains,  in  which  case  the  moisture  will  rise 
to  the  surface  and  be  dissipated  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  Then,  too,  it  is  possible,  by  too  frequent  sur- 
face tillage  when  the  soil  is  dry,  to  so  fine  the  earth 
as  to  cause  the  soil  particles  to  be  held  in  sus- 
pension, and  they  would  then  pass  downwards,  and 
so  fill  the  pores  of  the  land  as  to  arrest  capillarity 
and  exclude  air,  in  which  case  the  water  would  pass 
off  over  the  surface  in  wet  weather  and  the  land 
crack  in  dry  weather,  both  of  which  conditions  are 
undesirable .  if  moisture  is  to  be  stored  in  the  soil . 
Soils  containing  an  abundance  of  humus  are  less 
likely  to  be  injuriously  affected  by  the  conditions 
mentioned   above  than  those  deficient    in    humus  are. 

While  a  deep  earth -mulch  conserves  moisture  bet- 
ter than  a  surface  one,  yet  in  some  cases  the  shallow 
mulch  may  be  most  desirable,  as  in  maize  culture, 
when  the  plants  have  become  large  and  the  roots 
occupy  the  soil  near  the  surface.  A  deeper  mulch 
may  be  maintained  when  the  deeper -rooted  potatoes 
are  grown.  In  warm  climates,  the  roots  of  all  plants 
tend  to  form  at  lower  depths  than  in  cool  climates. 
In  sandy  or  semi -arid  districts,  the  roots  of  plants 
tend  to  avoid  the  upper  strata  of  the  soil.  Some 
plants,  as  bearing  trees,  are  most  fruitful  if  their 
growth  is  somewhat  checked  during  the  latter  part 
of   the   season,  and  hence  the  earth -mulch  should  not 


116  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

be  continued  intact  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  and  fall,  or  the  trees  will  have  their  vege- 
tative energies  stimulated  at  the  expense  of  fruitful- 
ness.  The  unfruitfulness  of  some  orchards  is  due 
to  over -stimulation  of  the  vegetative  system  by  a 
too  large  supply  of  nitrogen.  Unfruitfulness  may 
also  come  from  a  lack  of  moisture,  and  hence  a  lack 
of  nourishment,  at  critical  periods  in  the  life  of  the 
tree.  It  will  be  seen  how  intelligent  must  be  the 
use  of  the  earth -mulch,  manures,  cover  crops  and  the 
liberation  of  moisture  and  plant -food  by  systematic 
tillage,  if   the   highest  profitable  success  is  reached. 

From  the  first  of  July  in  the  south  to  the  middle 
of  August  in  the  north,  either  crimson  or  red  clover 
may  be  sowed  to  check  too  rapid  growth  of  orchard 
trees.  This  check  tends  to  make  the  trees  de- 
velop strong,  mature  fruit-buds,  able  to  resist  ad- 
verse conditions.  But  under  certain  conditions  the 
nitrogen  furnished  by  the  clover,  when  plowed  under 
the  following  spring,  may  so  stimulate  the  vegeta- 
tive energies  as  to  diminish  fruitfulness,  and  the 
covering  of  clover  or  plant -mulch,  which  is  so  bene- 
ficial in  most  cases,  may  then  be  injurious.  If  trees 
give  indication  that  this  is  the  case,  a  cover  crop 
of  rye  should  be  substituted  for  the  clover,  or  the 
clover  may  be  closely  pastured  in  the  spring,  before 
it  is   turned  under. 

We  have  seen  the  danger  of  continuing  the 
earth -mulch  too  late  in  the  season  in  fruit -culture, 
but  the  ordinary  inter- tilled  crops,  as  maize,  are 
greatly   benefited    by    preserving    a    mulch    intact    to 


Economizing   Moisture. 


117 


118  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

as  late  a  period  as  possible,  since  at  the  end  of  a 
period  at  which  the  inter- tilled  crops  are  "laid  by" 
they  are  so  far  advanced  as  to  preclude  over-stim- 
ulation of  the  vegetative  system.  Since  these  crops 
usually  lack  a  full  supply  of  food,  and  especially  a 
full  supply  of  moisture,  during  the  time  of  matur- 
ing fruit,  late,  frequent,  shallow  tillage  should  be 
continued,  that  the  plants  may  have  a  full  supply 
of  nourishment  and  ample  transportation  facilities  for 
carrying  it  to  the  reproductive  organs.  Fig.  26  shows 
the  effects  of   late  shallow  tillage   upon   Indian   corn. 

Most  of  the  potatoes  in  the  general  market  are 
insipid  and  undesirable  largely  because  their  normal 
growth  is  arrested  before  they  are  fully  mature.  A 
lack  of  foliage  in  the  later  stages  of  development, 
due  sometimes  to  disease,  but  more  commonly  to  lack 
of  moisture,  results  in  small  yields  of   inferior  tubers. 

All  that  has  been  said  of  conserving  moisture 
by  suitable  and  timely  tillage  holds  equally  true 
when  applied  to  crops  not  intcr-tilled.  Much  may 
be  done  to  so  compact  or  fine  or  loosen  the  sub- 
surface soil  and  prepare  the  surface  soil  as  to  liber- 
ate plant -food,  form  a  reservoir  for  moisture  (not 
for  free  water),  while  securing  the  most  desirable 
capillary  action  and  the  conservation  of  moisture. 
To  facilitate  the  saving  of  moisture,  crops  such  as 
grass,  wheat,  oats  and  the  like,  may  be  in  part 
inter -tilled  by  the  use  of  harrows  having  numerous 
short,  small  teeth.  True,  only  a  shallow  mulch 
san  be  secured,  but  this  is  to  be  preferred  to  a 
moisture -wasting   crust. 


Importance  of  Moisture   and    Water.  119 

The  depth  and  character  of  the  earth -mulch 
should  be  governed  by  the  root  habits  of  the  plants, 
by  the  species  grown,  by  the  character  of  the  soil, 
by  the  climate,  and  by  a  clear  conception  of  the 
results  desired.  Moisture  and  water  play  such  im- 
portant parts  in  the  successful  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  plants  and  animals  as  to  compel  the  most 
painstaking  effort  to  discover  the  natural  laws  which 
govern  their  actions  and  their  economic  use  in  hus- 
bandry. (This  subject  is  further  discussed  in  Appen- 
dix B.) 


CHAPTER  V. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE. 

The  discussion  of  the  means  of  securing  and 
saving  soil  moisture  naturally  suggests  the  subjects 
of  irrigation  and  drainage.  Whilst  these  matters 
are  too  large  for  specific  treatment  here  —  and  both 
of  them  are  soon  to  receive  special  elaboration  by 
other  hands  —  a  few  remarks  upon  their  general  rela- 
tions to  farm  -  practice  may  be  useful. 

IRRIGATION. 

If  irrigation  is  carried  on  in  any  large  way,  the 
initial  problems  to  be  solved  belong  properly  to 
the  civil  engineer.  No  farmer,  be  he  ever  so  well 
trained  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  and  tillage  of  the 
soil,  can  hope  to  have  accurate  knowledge  or  experi- 
ence in  the  construction  of  large  reservoirs,  the 
damming  of  water  courses,  the  digging  of  canals, 
and  the  equitable  distribution  of  water  among  those 
who  purchase  it  at  a  given  rate  per  inch,  or 
amongst  the  owners  of  the  irrigating  plant.  Then, 
too,  wherever  water  is  stored  or  taken  out  of  run- 
ning streams,  serious  legal  questions  often  arise ; 
in   fact,  they   are   sometimes    so    serious   that    special 

(120) 


Recent   Interest   in    Irrigation.  121 

legislation  is  necessary,  not  only  to  guard  the  rights 
of  those  in  the  immediate  district,  but  also  to  guard 
the  rights  of  those  living  in  adjoining  states  who 
would  have  a  moral,  if  not  a  legal,  right  to  the  use 
of  water  which  naturally  flows  through  their  lands. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  at  this  place  to  go  into 
any  detailed  discussion  of  the  subject  of  irrigation, 
but  to  discuss  it  in  a  general  way.  In  the  last 
few  years,  some  interest  in  irrigation  has  been  awak- 
ened in  the  states  lying  east  of  the  arid  or  semi- 
arid  district.  A  few  small  areas  of  land  in  the 
humid  district  have  been  irrigated  with  more  or  less 
satisfactory  results,  and  in  a  few  rare  cases  sub- 
irrigation  has  been  practiced  on  experimental  plats. 
In  all  districts  where  the  annual  precipitation  is 
fairly  abundant,  and  is  not  distributed  with  too  great 
irregularity  throughout  the  various  months  of  the 
year,  irrigation  is  not  likely  to  be  practiced,  except 
on  small  areas  devoted  to  crops  which  give  or  should 
give  a  large  income  per  acre.  In  the  areas  spoken 
of,  where  rain  may  come  at  any  time,  irrigation  or 
flooding  of  the  land  at  any  given  time  when  the 
soil  appears  to  need  moisture  may  be  and  usually 
is  just  preceding  a  greater  or  less  precipitation.  If, 
then,  the  land  be  filled  with  water  and  heavy  showers 
immediately  follow,  the  land  will  be  supersaturated, 
and  the  damage  done  by  the  superabundant  water, 
due  to  the  irrigation  and  the  rainfall  combined,  may 
be  far  greater  than  the  loss  or  damage  which  would 
have  been  caused  by  the  too  dry  condition  of  land 
had    no    irrigation    been    practiced. 


122  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Wherever  irrigation  is  provided  for  outside  of  the 
arid  or  semi-arid  districts,  except  on  porous  or  light 
lands,  full  and  ample  sub -drainage  will  have  to  be 
provided  if  the  highest  results  are  obtained.  The 
cost  of  providing  the  irrigating  plant  and  of  thor- 
oughly sub -draining  the  land  combined,  would  be  so 
great  as  to  preclude  profit,  except  under  special  con- 
ditions and  with  a  few  special  crops.  Then,  too,  a 
large  portion  of  the  district  which  has  a  fairly  abun- 
dant rainfall  is  composed  so  largely  of  clay  that 
irrigation  without  the  most  perfect  sub -drainage 
would  result  in  puddling  the  land,  and  making  it 
difficult  to  secure  good  tillage  when  the  water  of 
irrigation  was  withdrawn.  Yet  there  are  many  dis- 
tricts located  near  the  great  markets  which,  on  ac- 
count of  the  friable  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  high 
price  of  garden  and  some  other  products,  lend  them- 
selves most  admirably  to  a  modified  system  of  ir- 
rigation. In  many  cases  the  market  demand  of  the 
large  cities  would  justify  sub -irrigation  on  restricted 
areas. 

Wherever  the  practice  of  laying  water  conduits, 
from  three  to  eight  feet  apart  and  about  one  foot 
deep,  for  sub -irrigation  has  been  adopted,  marked 
beneficial  results  have  followed.  In  fact,  sub -irriga- 
tion would  seem  to  be  the  ideal  method  of  provid- 
ing moisture  for  plants,  but  the  cost  of  preparing 
and  maintaining  a  sub  -  irrigating  system  is  so  great 
that  it  cannot  come  into  general  practice.  As  to 
the  arid  and  semi -arid  districts,  it  may  be  said  that 
in   most  cases    the    texture   and    composition   of    the 


Hold, inj    Hack    the    Waters.  123 

soil  are  admirably  adapted  to  irrigation,  and  it  is 
largely  only  a  matter  of  ample  water  supply,  and 
its  cheap  transportation  to  and  distribution  in  the 
fields,  which  has  to  be  considered,  for  in  the  dis- 
trict where  the  rainfall  is  extremely  light,  or  where 
there  is  no  rainfall  at  all  for  three  to  six  months 
of  the  year,  irrigation  can  be  scientifically  practiced: 
that  is,  the  plants  can  be  supplied  with  the  recmisite 
amount  of  moisture  without  any  danger  of  their  re- 
ceiving a  great  superabundance  of  it  from  unexpected 
rainfall . 

As  has  been  said,  in  all  this  arid -district  the 
problem  must  be  solved  first  by  the  civil  engineer. 
Happily,  we  have  men  who  are  thoroughly  competent 
to  undertake  this  work,  and  who  are  interested  in 
the  beneficial  results  which  might  follow  an  intelli- 
gent system  of  water  storage  for  irrigating  purposes. 
More  than  this,  if  the  water  can  be  held  back  at  its 
sources  until  needed,  floods  will  be  somewhat  miti- 
gated, the  humidity  of  the  climate  increased,  and 
beneficial  results  will  follow  in  many  other  ways. 
It  is  pleasant  to  note  that  the  National  Government 
has  already  provided  means  to  hold  back  the  waters 
at  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  thereby  mitigating 
the  floods  and  making  the  Upper  Mississippi  navi- 
gable  at  nearly  all    seasons   of  the   year. 

The  following  facts  are  given  to  show  what  vast 
reservoirs  may  be  constructed  at  small  cost  when 
the  work  is  undertaken  in  an  intelligent  way  by  a 
competent  engineer,  like  Major  W.  A.  Jones.  Five 
dams  have  already  been  constructed  at  a  cost  slightly 


124  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

exceeding  $600,000.*  "In  a  general  way,  the  reser- 
voirs may  be  said  to  be  located  in  the  great  lake 
region  of  the  state  of  Minnesota,  in  the  midst  of 
an  extensive  area  of  wooded  swamp  and  open  mead- 
ows and  marshes.  Their  general  elevation  is  about 
1,290  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There  are 
thirty  thousand  lakes  in  this  lake  region,  and  the 
state  has  a  water  area  in  its  own  borders  of  many 
thousands    of   square   miles. 

"The  following  tabular  statement,  compiled  from  a 
larger  table  in  the  office  of  the  chief  of  engineers 
at  St.  Paul,  gives  some  interesting  information  as 
to  the  immense  size  of  these  reservoirs,  put  in  con- 
densed  form : 

Working  height  of  dam         Area  of  reservoir.  Area  of 

above  low  water,  sq.  miles,  water-shed, 

in  feet.  high  water.  Low  water.  sq.  miles. 

Winnibigoshish  . . .  14  161.26  117.  1,442.48 

Leech  Lake 6  233.80  173.19  1,162.80 

PokegamaLake...  9  45.29  24.13  660.23 

Pine  River 17  33.76  8.  562.07 

Sandy  Lake 7  16.52  33.33  421.50 

490.63  355.65  4,249.08  " 

Major  Jones  says  :  "  There  is  no  operation  in  en- 
gineering so  fraught  with  importance  to  mankind  as 
the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  water  which  results 
from  rainfall.  ******  Given  a  definite 
superficial  area  of  land  from  which  all  surplus  rain- 
fall will  flow  toward  and  into  one  channel,  and  the 
benefits   which    will    result     to    the   population    along 


*W.  S.  Harwood,  Harper's  Weekly,  No.  2.090,  p.  38.      (Copyright,  1887.  by 
Harper  &  Brothers.) 


Effects  of  Climatic   Changes.  125 

that  channel  from  the  control  of  its  water -flow  are 
great  and   far-reaching.     Here  are  some  : 

"1.  Prevention  of  floods,  or  a  reduction  of  their 
intensity. 

"2.  A  sure  supply  of  water  for  navigation  during 
the   low -water   season. 

"3.  A  more  nearly  uniform  distribution  of  the 
water   for   power   purposes. 

"4.  Furnishing  water   for   irrigation    purposes. 

"5.  Preventing  deterioration  of  water  used  for  do- 
mestic purposes  during  low -water   periods. 

"A  desert  is  a  place  where  rainfall  is  not  sufficient 
to  support  life.  If  the  earth's  rainfall  were  uni- 
formly distributed  over  its  surface,  there  would  be  no 
desert.  Each  desert  area  is  surrounded  by  a  zone 
where  precipitation  is  sufficient  for  grass  and  low 
bushes,  but  not  for  trees  •  or  agriculture.  This  is 
the  border  land  of  desert.  The  varying  effects  of  cli- 
matic changes  alternately  expand  and  contract  this 
zone.  It  may,  over  an  indefinite  period  of  years, 
contract  and  absorb  the  desert — vide  the  Great  Amer- 
ican Desert — or  it  may  expand  and  extend  its  bor- 
ders far  into  the  region  of  lands  arable  without  irri- 
gation. There  are  many  indications  that  over  the 
great  plains  areas  of  the  northern  hemisphere  this 
process  is  now  going  on.  A  careful  assemblage  of 
facts  will  doubtless  show  that  over  these  great  areas 
and  along  their  wet  borders  the  lakes  and  streams 
have  for  many  years  past  been  gradually  drying  up. 
And,  furthermore,  they  bear  remarkable  evidence  of 
a   time  when    the    precipitation    was    far    less    than    at 


126  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

present.  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  gravest  impor- 
tance for  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  con- 
serve and  control  precipitation  over  and  near  this 
border  land   of   desert." 

There  are  many  districts  in  the  United  States 
which  might  be  treated  similarly  to  the  one  de- 
scribed above,  with  all  of  the  beneficial  results  which 
have  been  enumerated.  Then,  too,  there  are  many 
badly  farmed  areas  which  might  better  be  covered  with 
water  than  farmed  at  a  loss.  Not  one  reservoir 
for  water  storage,  but  thousands,  both  large  and 
small,  should  be  constructed.  When  the  science  of 
holding  back  surplus  water  economically  has  been 
learned  and  put  into  practice,  and  the  benefits  de- 
rived from  such  practice  have  been  appreciated,  it 
will  be  an  easy  task  to  awaken  interest  in  forestry. 
Reservoirs  alone  cannot  entirely  arrest  floods,  or  fur- 
nish as  humid  an  atmosphere  as  is  desired.  They 
must  be  supplanted  by  large  areas  of  planted  or 
natural  forest  belts.  To  what  better  use  could  many 
of  the  rocky,  steep  hillsides  and  poor  farms,  which 
have  been  made  poorer  by  tillage,  be  put  than  to 
grow  trees  and  to  hold  back  water  during  periods 
of  abundant  precipitation?  If  one -fourth  of  the 
land, — the  poorer  and  rougher  areas, — was  thrown  out 
of  cultivation  and  allowed,  even  by  nature's  slow  pro- 
cesses, to  cover  the  nakedness  of  mother  earth  and 
our  shame,  the  climate  in  time  would  be  changed, 
present  losses,  which  are  now  incurred  by  farming 
these  lands,  avoided,  while  posterity  would  reap  vast 
and   enduring   benefits   from   our   though tfulness. 


Effects  of   Underdrainage.  127 

DRAINAGE. 

Underground  drains  serve  to  relieve  the  land  of 
free  water,  which  is  very  harmful  to  most  plants  if 
left  to  stagnate  in  the  earth  near  the  surface.  They 
serve  not  only  to  dry  the  land  in  early  spring,  but 
indirectly  to  warm  it,  for  if  the  water  is  removed 
the  sun's  heat  warms  the  soil,  instead  of  cooling  it 
by  evaporating  the  surplus  water.  If  much  of  the 
free  water  in  the  springtime  is  carried  through  the 
soil  by  underdrains,  then  the  superabundant  water 
of  midsummer  will,  in  like  manner,  be  removed. 
The  rain  in  the  spring  is  warmer  than  the  soil,  and 
if  it  percolates  through  the  land  to  the  drains,  it 
parts  with  its  heat  and  indirectly  warms  the  soil, 
while  the  rain  in  midsummer  is  cooler  than  the  soil, 
and  in  passing  down  to  the  drains  cools  the  land. 

Underdrains  prevent  the  interstices  of  the  soil 
from  becoming  blocked  or  filled  with  fine  particles  of 
earth  held  in  suspension  -,  that  is,  they  prevent  pud- 
dling, to  some  extent.  Clayey  soils  shrink  if  they 
become  dry,  and  swell  when  they  are  wet.  Under- 
drains tend  to  prevent  the  swelling  and  closing  of 
the  pores  which  have  been  produced  by  drying.  As 
soon  as  air  is  admitted  to  the  subsoil,  the  dead  roots 
of  plants  are  decomposed  and  minute  drainage -chan- 
gels  are  formed.  One  of  the  effects  of  drainage  is  to 
produce  many  small  channels  in  the  soil,  which  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  large  cracks  that  admit  the  air 
too  freely  and  thereby  cause  excessive  evaporation. 
Underdrains  promote  fertility  by  opening  up  the  soil 


128  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

to  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  air,  and  by  making  the 
soil  more  comfortable  for  the  nitrifying  organisms. 

The  rainfall  usually  contains  ammonia  equal  to 
six  to  eight  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre.  The  more 
of  the  water  that  comes  to  the  land  in  rains  and 
snows  that  can  be  made  to  pass  through  the  land  in 
a  reasonable  time  the  better,  for  in  passing  through, 
the  ammonia  is  taken  up  by  the  soil,  the  land  be- 
comes better  aerated  and  more  friable,  decomposition 
of  organic  matter  is  hastened,  plant -food  of  all  kinds 
is  liberated,  and  the  productive  power  of  the  land 
is  increased  in  many  other  ways.  Well -constructed 
underdrains  assist  in  mitigating  floods,  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  cheapen  tillage,  and  prevent  or 
mitigate  some  of  the  diseases  of  plants  and  the 
ravages   of    some   noxious    insects. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  soil  is  broken  into 
minute  particles  by  the  action  of  underground  drains, 
its  power  to  hold  moisture  will  be  increased.  If  a 
drained  soil  is  capable  of  holding  30  per  cent  of 
moisture  without  giving  off  free  water,  it  will  hold 
back  during  wet  weather  vast  quantities  of  water 
which  would  pass  off  of  undrained  land,  that  could 
hold  but  15  per  cent  of  moisture.  Fields  thor- 
oughly underdrained  suffer  far  less  from  droughts 
than  undrained  fields,  other  things  being  equal.  Sur- 
face drainage,  especially  of  marshes  and  other  wet 
lands,  and  the  destruction  of  forests  by  fire  and 
axe,  increase  floods  to  an  alarming  extent,  as  they 
destroy  the  natural  reservoirs  and  absorbing  materials 
of   the   land. 


Proper    and    Improper     Drain  aye 


129 


water  into  the  open, 
an  elaborate  system 
of  mains  and  later- 
als. Fig.  27  repre- 
sents a  square  of 
forty  acres  drained 
by  the  parallel  sys- 
tem, and  Fig.  28  a 
like  amount  drained 
by  the  too  common 
method.  If  the 
ditches  are  placed 
thirty  feet  apart  in 
Fig.  27,  it  would 
take  58,080  feet  of 
tile     to     drain      the 


f    draining 


than    to    ( 


It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose to  enter  into  the 
details  of  sub -drain- 
age, but  the  mistake 
of  concentrating 
water  into  mains  and 
sub-mains  when  they 
might  be  avoided  is 
so  often  made,  that 
it  seems  fitting  to 
discuss  one  phase  of 
the  subject  briefly. 
It  is  the  better  plan 
to  let  each  drain 
discharge  its  own 
omplicate    matters    by 


FiC. 


28.     The   common   but  improper    method 
of   draining  «   large  field. 


130  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

land.  It  would  take  the  same  number  of  tile  to  drain 
the  land  in  Fig.  28,  plus  2,640  feet  for  the  mains 
and  sub-mains.  These  would  have  to  be  larger  than 
the  tile  used  in  the  laterals,  and  should  be  placed 
three  or  four  inches  deeper,  that  the  water  of  the 
laterals  may  enter  near  the  top  of  the  mains  with 
a  rapid  fall.  Many  connections  would  have  to  be 
made,  and  nothing  would  be  gained  except  that  fewer 
outlets  would  have  to  be  cared  for  by  the  second 
than  by  the  first  system.  The  mains  and  sub- 
mains  are  really  not  drains,  but  are  expensive  con- 
duits for  carrying  off  the  water  which  is  brought  to 
the  lowest  land  by  the  laterals. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

FARM    MANURES. 

Formerly  all  substances  which  were  spread  upon 
the  land  for  the  purpose  primarily  of  enriching  it, 
were  designated  as  manures.  Latterly  the  meaning 
of  the  word  has  changed  somewhat,  and  it  does 
not  now  embrace  commercial  fertilizers,  nor  those 
substances  whose  chief  object  is  to  improve  the  phys- 
sical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  term  is  now  applied 
to  the  excrements  of  domestic  animals,  mixed  or 
unmixed  with  vegetable  or  other  refuse  material,  and 
a  few  other  substances ;  only  in  rare  cases  are  amend- 
ments, or  extraneous  matters,  or  fertilizers  mixed 
with  them  in  sufficient  quantities  to  change  in  any 
marked  way  the  character  of  their  constituents.  The 
term  excrements  has  been  substituted  for  the  ancient 
word  dung,  the  meaning  of  which  was  somewhat 
ambiguous.  Excrements  are  the  solid  and  liquid  void- 
ings  of  animals,  unmixed  with  litter.  The  term  barn 
manures  has  been  substituted  in  some  cases  for  farm- 
yard manures,  the  object  being  to  sharply  distinguish 
those  which  are  cared  for  and  sheltered  until  they 
are  taken  to  the  field,  from  those  which  are  left  to 
depreciate  in  quantity  and  value  by  being  exposed 
in   the  farmyard   to   the  action  of   the  rain  and   heat. 

(131) 


132  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Farm  manures  is  a  generic  term,  and  includes  all 
kinds  and  classes  of  refuse  matter,  whether  applied 
chiefly  as  an  amendment,  or  for  the  plant -food  con- 
tained, or  for  forming  a  mulch,  or  for  all  three  pur- 
poses combined.  The  excrements  associated  with  bed- 
ding or  other  material  from  different  species  of 
animals  when  thrown  together  are  called  mixed  ma- 
nures, while  those  from  a  single  species  are  designa- 
ted by  the  name  of  the  kind  of  animals  which  pro- 
duced them. 

GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS     RESPECTING    THE     USE 
OF      MANURES. 

Most  manures  are  unbalanced ;  that  is,  they  con- 
tain a  relatively  high  percentage  of  potential  nitro- 
gen and  a  low  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  provided  the  comparison  is  made  with  the 
composition  of  plants  grown  under  common  condi- 
tions, where  mixed  agriculture  is  largely  pursued. 
If  the  comparison  is  made  with  the  composition  of 
plants  alone,  then  farm  manures  may  be  said  to  be 
relatively  low  in  potential  nitrogen  and  high  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  ;  but  this  method  of  compar- 
ison is  very  misleading,  for  while  the  soil  is  being 
constantly  enriched  in  nitrogen  from  leguminous 
plants  which  have  immediately  preceded,  from  those 
plants  which  grow  with  the  crop  with  which  the 
manures  are  compared,  from  potential  nitrogen  which 
is  being  constantly  absorbed  by  moist,  friable  soils, 
and   from   that  which  is  brought   to  the  soil   by  rain. 


Hail,   Climate    and    Food.  133 

the  mineral  matter  is  not  being  augmented  from  out- 
side sources.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  arable  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of 
the  dry  belt,  enough  nitrogen  from  the  last  two 
sources  alone  is  secured  to  supply  one -third  of  the 
wants  of  the  cultivated  plants.  True,  the  average 
yield  of  farm  crops  is  only  one -third  of  what  it 
might  be  if  superior  tillage  and  underdraining  were 
the  rule  instead  of  the  exception,  and  if  the  effort 
were  abandoned  of  trying  to  raise  plants  on  land 
and  in  a  climate  not  well  adapted  to  their  growth 
and    highest    development. 

If  plants  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate,  they  are  unable  to  utilize  the  food  which  is 
present,  and  tend  to  languish,  although  there  may 
be  not  only  a  sufficient  plant  ration,  but  also  a  well- 
balanced  one.  Consequently,  in  basing  the  wants  of 
plants  on  chemical  analyses,  and  in  making  compar- 
isons between  them  and  the  composition  of  manures, 
there  is  danger  of  being  led  into  erroneous  conclu- 
sions. The  whole  subject  is  difficult  and  extremely 
complex,  as  plants  differ  so  widely  in  the  power  of 
their  roots  to  make  soluble  the  material  in  the  soil, 
and  also  in  their  power  to  tolerate  an  excess  of  one 
or  more  of  the  elements  of  growth,  or  even  of  sub- 
stances not  necessary  to  the  plant.  It  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  determine  by  analysis  of  soil  and  plant 
how  much  and  what  plant -food  should  be  added  to 
secure  best  results.  Then,  too,  plants  raised  for  a 
long  time  under  superior  conditions  of  plant -food, 
soil   and    climate,  acquire  powers  not    possessed  by  the 


134  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

same  species  grown  from  time  to  time  under  adverse 
conditions.  Not  only  may  plants,  like  animals,  ac- 
quire new  qualities  and  increase  those  already  pos- 
sessed, but  they  may  also,  in  time,  under  favorable 
conditions,  become  so  fixed  in  their  acquired  powers 
that  these  characters  may  be  transmitted  with  a  good 
degree  of  certainty ;  that  is,  they  become  thorough- 
bred, in  the  best  sense  of  the  word. 

Plants  vary  greatly  in  their  root  systems  and  leaf 
structure,  and  hence  in  their  power  to  secure  the 
necessary  elements  from  the  soil  and  from  the  atmos- 
phere. Some  thrive  best  with  a  minimum,  others 
with  a  maximum  amount  of  moisture ;  some  do  best 
on  poor  soils,  and  others  will  thrive  only  when  there 
is  an  abundance  of  easily  available  food.  To  feed 
plants  understandingly  is  not  only  extremely  difficult, 
but  sometimes  impossible ;  therefore,  a  most  careful 
study  of  the  wants  of  plants  from  the  scientific  and 
chemical  standpoint  may  not  give  the  information 
desired,  unless  made  in  connection  with  close  obser- 
vations of  the  behavior  of  the  plant  throughout  its 
entire  period  of  germination,  growth  and  fructifica- 
tion. Notwithstanding  all  this,  if  the  investigator 
begins  to  question  the  soil  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  the  crops  to  be  raised  and  the  ma- 
nures applied,  he  is  far  more  likely  to  obtain  true 
answers  to  his  questions  than  if  he  were  to  trust 
entirely  to  science  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  visible, 
external  results  on  the  other.* 


*  For  a  sketch  of  the  methods  which  the  farmer  may  pursue  to  determine 
what  plant-foods  he  may  use  to  best  advantage,  see  Caldwell,  Bull.  129,  Cornell 
Exp.  Sta. 


Bright   Straw   Necessary.  135 

To  show  more  clearly  the  need  of  care  in  draw- 
ing  conclusions,    the    following   examples   are   given  : 

Wheat,  with  its  accompanying  straw  and  chaff, 
uses,  approximately,  for  every  100  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
33  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  63  pounds  of  pot- 
ash. Unleached  horse  manure,  if  applied  in  sufficient 
quantities  (supposing  that  all  the  plant -food  it  con- 
tains is  available)  to  furnish  100  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
would,  at  the  same  time,  furnish  58  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  139  pounds  of  potash ;  or  an  excess 
above  the  requirements  of  the  plant  of  25  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  76  pounds  of  potash.  When 
the  problem  is  reduced  to  practice,  it  is  found  that 
notwithstanding  there  seems  to  be  an  excess  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  as  compared  with  nitrogen, 
the  wheat,  may  still  be  unable  to  form  straw  firm 
enough  to  resist  rust  or  stiff  enough  to  carry  it 
safely  to  the  harvest  period.  Or  in  other  words,  while 
the  comparison  from  the  chemical  standpoint  shows 
that  there  is  an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  the  horse  manure,  as  compared  with  the  compo- 
sition of  wheat,  the  plant  shows  by  its  soft  texture, 
tendency  to  rust  and  inability  to  stand  up  and  fruit 
bountifully,  that  it  is  gorged  with  nitrogen.  This 
would  seem  to  show  that  ordinary  soils  under  rota- 
tion receive  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  from  sources 
outside  of  the  manures,  often  quite  as  large  as  plants 
which  are  sensitive  to  nitrogen  (as  oats,  for  example) 
can  use,  and  still  remain  strong  and  healthy. 

If  the  average  composition  of  manure,  as  found 
in     a     large    number    of    experiments     made     at     the 


136  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

Cornell  University  Station  with  125  animals  (cows, 
calves,  pigs,  horses  and  sheep),  is  compared  with 
the  composition  of  Indian  corn,  allowing  that  the 
stalk  is  to  the  grain  as  three  to  one,  and  with  some 
other  leading  crops,  the  following  results  are  reached: 

,  Phos.  acid.  Potash. 

Mixed  manure  contains,  for  every  100 

lbs.  nitrogen 49.6  lbs.  77.8  lbs. 

Maize    (whole    plant)     contains,     for 

every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 32.       "  100.      " 

Oats,  1%   straw    to    1  grain,  contain, 

for  every  100  lbs  nitrogen 37.3     "  82.6    " 

Barley,  VA  straw  to  1  grain,  contains, 

for  every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 31.5    "  98.7    " 

Mangolds,  %  tops  to  1  roots,  contain, 

for  every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 45.       "  180.      " 

Potatoes,  %  tops  to  1  tubers,  contain, 

for  every  100  lbs.  nitrogen 27.        "  110.      " 


The  above  shows  that  for  every  100  pounds  of 
nitrogen  which  the  manure  furnishes,  there  is  an 
excess  of  17.6  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  a  de- 
ficiency of  22.2  pounds  of  potash,  when  compared 
with  the  composition  of  maize.  All  of  the  plants 
mentioned  require  a  less  proportion  of  phosphoric 
acid  than  would  be  furnished  by  the  manure,  and 
without  any  exception  they  all  require  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  potash,  as  compared  with  the  nitrogen, 
than  the  manure  would  supply. 

Most  good  farms  are  kept  in  a  productive  condi- 
tion by  the  aid  of  rotation  and  manures,  with  an 
occasional  light  application  of  commercial  fertilizers 
to  the  cereals.  The  table  above  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  both  nitrogen  and  potash  should  be  applied 


Availability   of  Plant -food.  137 

in  excess  of  the  phosphoric  acid  ;  yet,  in  practice, 
fertilizers  containing  a  relatively  high  percentage  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  low  percentage  of  nitrogen,  as 
compared  with  the  composition  of  the  cereals,  are 
almost  invariably  used.  In  fact,  in  many  cases,  as 
in  the  growing  of  barley  and  wheat,  the  best  finan- 
cial results  are  often  reached  by  the  application  of 
phosphoric  acid  alone.  No  facts  are  at  hand  to  show 
whether,  in  manures,  a  greater  percentage  of  one  of 
these  elements  over  the  other  two  is  available.  We 
know  only  that  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  furnished  by 
the  manure  may  escape  by  leaching,  but  it  is  very 
possible  that,  on  account  of  chemical  changes  or 
bad  tillage,  the  phosphoric  acid  which  the  manure  con- 
tains is  not  as  available  as  the  potash  or  the  nitrogen. 
It  is  certain  that  when  land  is  treated  to  superior 
surface  tillage,  especially  during  the  warmer  months, 
large  amounts  of  nitrogen  are  set  free, — so  large,  in 
fact,  that  in  some  cases  the  plants  are  injured  by 
the  excess.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  much 
of  the  potential  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  always  in  such 
forms,  under  ordinary  tillage,  as  to  be  useless  to  the 
plant,  and  that  extra  tillage  may  give  more  econom- 
ical results  than  the  application  of  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers would. 

All  of  the  discussion  so  far  is  applicable  to  most 
of  those  localities  where  grasses,  clover  and  the 
cereals  are  raised  in  shorter  or  longer  rotation,  but 
as  soon  as  the  dry  districts,  or  a  warm  climate  and 
more  sandy  soil  are  reached,  the  conditions  are  so 
changed    that    radically    different    practices    of    tillage 


138  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

and  manuring  should  be  followed.  In  the  cotton 
belt,  which  extends  over  a  wide  area  and  embraces  a 
variety  of  soils,  climates  and  elevations,  no  methods 
of  manuring  can  be  uniformly  recommended.  On 
the  lighter  lands  kept  constantly  under  the  plow, 
nitrogen  is  lamentably  deficient.  Farm  manures  in 
that  section  are  never  to  be  had  in  large  quantities, 
and  are  often  entirely  wanting.  A  dressing  of  cot- 
ton-seed meal,  which  contains  between  5  and  7  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  usually  produces  good  results.  In 
all  the  southern  country  a  much  larger  use  should 
be  made  of  cover  crops  and  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  the  cow  pea,  for  a  four- fold  benefit  to  the  soil 
would  be  secured, — added  humus,  an  increase  in  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  liberation  of  mineral  matter 
through  the  action  of  plant  roots,  and  the  bringing 
from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface  soil  of  plant -food 
which  is  now  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  some 
of   the  ordinary  crops,  such  as  the  cereals. 

On  the  fertile  prairies  west  of  the  99th  meridian, 
the  problem  is  not  one  of  plant -food,  but  how  to 
furnish  moisture,  and,  consequently,  a  discussion  of 
fertility  as  applied  to  one -third  of  the  United  States 
is  superfluous  until  some  means  has  been  found  for 
securing  and  utilizing  the  vast  stores  of  plant- 
foods  already  in  the  soil,  most  of  which  are  made 
easily  available  whenever  and  wherever  the  plants  are 
supplied  with  moisture, — that  universal  vehicle  for 
carrying  animal  and  vegetable  nutrition  both  into 
and   out  of  circulation. 

From  what   has   been   said   it   will    be    possible   to 


Conclusions.  139 

draw  some  general  conclusions  respecting  the  manur- 
ing  of   the    land  : 

(1)  That  while  farm  manures  are  almost  always 
valuable  in  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the 
land  and  augmenting  its  power  to  hold  moisture, 
and  in  helping  in  various  ways  to  make  available  the 
dormant  energy  already  in  the  soil,  yet  they  con- 
tribute only  one  factor — sometimes  a  very  small  one 
— in  determining  the  quality,  quantity  and  value  of 
a  crop.  Their  true  value  depends  not  only  on  the 
composition  but  quite  as  much  on  the  ability  of 
the  husbandman  to  associate  other  factors  with  them, 
which,  taken  together,   lead  to  the  highest  success. 

(2)  That  while  most  soils  contain  a  surplus  of 
plant -food  over  and  above  the  wants  of  the  crop 
in  any  one  season,  yet  the  question  of  highest 
economic  results  as  between  tillage  and  added  plant- 
food   can    be   determined   only   by   experiment. 

(3)  That  increased  tillage,  and  the  application  of 
farm  manures  and  other  forms  of  plant -food,  may 
largely  fail  of  their  object  if  the  plants  grown  arc 
not  suitable  to  the  climate,  or  have  not  the  inbred 
power  to  make  the  best  use  of  their  improved  en- 
vironment. 

(4)  That  the  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
the  plant  sometimes  gives  no  indication  of  what 
plant -food  should  bo  added  to  the  land  to  secure 
the  most  satisfactory  results ;  for  example,  clover 
contains  a  high  percentage  of  potential  nitrogen, 
yet    thrives   well    on    land   deficient   in    it. 

(5)  That   an   ordinary  analysis  of   soil    gives    little 


140  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

indication    as    to    the    availability    of     the    elements 
which   it   contains. 

(6)  That  having  mastered  the  sciences  which  un- 
derlie agriculture,  and  having  learned  how  to  apply 
them  to  the  growth  of  one  or  more  kinds  of  plants 
in  any  particular  locality,  and  how  best  to  make 
soil  fertility  available,  and  how  to  select  plants  and 
apply  fertilizers  and  manures,  still  all  this  knowl- 
edge may  be  of  little  economic  value  if  the  one 
great   factor   of   moisture    is   lost   sight   of. 

(7)  That  it  is  far  easier  to  start  with  only  a 
few  known  facts,  even  without  a  knowledge  of  how 
best  to  use  them,  in  the  endeavor  to  determine  the 
best  practice,  than  to  ignore  these  fundamental  facts 
and  to  endeavor  to  discover  everything  by  experi- 
ment. 

(8)  That  in  no  case  should  the  fact  that  many 
soils  contain  vast  stores  of  plant -food  lead  to  waste 
or  carelessness  in  the  management  of  the  manurial 
products  of  the  farm,  for,  except  on  lands  which  are 
recuperated  by  overflow  or  irrigation,  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, the  time  is  never  far  distant  when  even  the 
richest  land  will  fail  to  give  maximum  results,  if 
unassisted. 

(9)  That  all  home  resources  of  fertility  should 
be  fully  utilized  before  resort  is  had  to  purchased 
plant -food. 

(10)  That  timeliness,  adaptation,  thoroughness, 
economy  in  the  use  of  energy,  and  good  judgment 
in  the  management  of  details — that  is,  farm -prac- 
tice— play   such    important    parts    in    modern    agricui- 


Mature   vs.   Young   Animals.  141 

ture  that  they  may  be  considered  to  be  equal,  if 
not  superior,  to  the  facts  revealed  by  chemistry, 
botany,  and  allied  sciences.  Knowledge  and  the  ap- 
plication of  it  should  not  be  divorced,  but  joined 
so  firmly  by  intelligent  thought  and  action  that  the 
twain  become  one. 


FACTORS     WHICH     DETERMINE    THE    QUALITY    OF 
FARM    MANURES. 

Manures  vary  greatly  in  their  chemical  composi- 
tion and  also  in  their  beneficial  effects.  These  varia- 
tions are  due  to  many  causes. 

Young  animals  digest  their  food  more  closely  than 
old  ones  do.  Very  young  mammals  are  usually  fed  on 
milk,  all  of  which  is  believed  to  be  digestible, 
while  the  constituents  of  the  food  of  mature  animals 
are  never  wholly  digested  or  assimilated.  Then,  too, 
in  the  young,  growing  animal,  all  of  the  constituents 
of  its  food  are  wanted  for  growth  and  development, 
while  the  mature  one  has  its  structure  fully  com- 
pleted, and  requires  food  only  for  maintenance  and 
for  surplus  product,  as  increase  in  weight  or  produc- 
tion of  milk.  As  the  digestive  and  assimilative 
powers  are  more  active  in  young  than  in  old  ani- 
mals, the  excrements  of  the  former  contain  less  of  the 
manurial  elements  found  in  the  food  consumed  than 
those  of  the  latter.  Young  animals  change  vegetable 
into  animal  products  more  economically  than  old 
ones,  and  hence  they  are  likely  to  give  more  pounds 
increase    in    weight    for    a    given    number    of   units    of 


142  The   Fertility  of  the   Land. 

food,  but  the  resulting  excrements  are  less  valuable 
than  those  from  mature  animals  are. 

Species  of  animals  vary  as  plants  do  in  their 
power  to  live  on  coarse,  unconcentrated  or  tough 
food,  and  it  is  believed  that  they  vary  in  their  powers 
of  digestion  and  assimilation,  though  no  extended  and 
exact  experiments  have  been  made  in  this  direction. 
The  question  is  frequently  asked,  if  sheep  make  a 
better  use  of  their  food  than  cattle  or  horses;  that  is, 
if  a  ton  of  hay  and  a  ton  of  corn  be  fed  to  sheep, 
and  the  same  amounts  to  cattle  and  horses,  all  mature 
and  under  conditions  as  nearly  similar  as  possible, 
which  species  will  assimilate  the  greatest  percentage 
of  its  food,  and  which  will  give  the  greatest  manurial 
value  in  its  excrements  ?  The  hay  and  maize  being 
the  same  in  quantity  and  quality,  in  either  case 
the  amount  of  fertilizing  elements  in  the  solid  excre- 
ments would  determine  the  relative  powers  of  the 
species  to  assimilate  food. 

The  uses  to  which  animals  are  put  frequently 
modify  in  a  marked  degree  the  value  of  their  excre- 
ments. Those  which  reproduce  and  rear  young  make 
poorer  excrements  than  do  those  of  like  species  under 
similar  conditions  which  are  not  bearing  young.  Ani- 
mals giving  milk  produce  poorer  excrements  than 
those  which  are  not  in  milk,  when  placed  under 
like  conditions.  In  other  words,  animals  which  are 
put  to  laborious  work  for  many  hours  per  day  re- 
quire a  wide  (or  carbonaceous)  ration,  if  they  are  to 
be  well  sustained  in  energy,  and  prevented  from  using 
expensive    nitrogenous   compounds   in   its   production ; 


Nitrogenous    Compounds   Expensive.  143 

while  animals  kept  for  speed,  and  those  which  are 
required  to  do  very  severe  work  for  only  short 
periods,  are  most  satisfactorily  sustained  on  a  narrower 
(or  nitrogenous)  ration. 

Mature  animals  which  are  non-productive  and  are 
not  increasing  in  weight  return  sooner  or  later 
nearly  all  of  the  manurial  constituents  of  their  food  in 
their  excrements  (manifestly  all  cannot  be  returned, 
as  dead  particles  of  skin  and  hair  are  thrown  off), 
while  only  one -half  to  two -thirds  is  returned  by 
young  and  rapidly  growing  ones.  Cows  in  full  milk 
return  in  their  excrements  only  about  65  to  75  per 
cent,  while  fattening  animals  return  85  to  90  per 
cent  of  the  fertilizing  elements  of  their  food. 

The  unscientific  reader  may  not  fully  understand 
how  animals  can  live,  increase  in  weight  and  grow 
fat,  and  yet  return  to  the  manure  pile  nearly  all  of 
the  valuable  fertilizing  constituents  which  their  food 
contained.  Given  a  suitable  ration,  the  animal  first 
of  all  uses  the  carbonaceous  or  heat -producing  ma- 
terials for  maintaining  normal  temperature,  and  if  not 
enough  is  available  it  uses  nitrogenous  compounds, 
and  lacking  in  this,  it  draws  on  the  stored  fat  in 
the  system.  Substituting  the  fats  of  the  animal,  or 
nitrogenous  compounds,  for  the  less  expensive  car- 
bonaceous heat- producers  of  cattle  foods,  is  usually 
poor  economy.  After  the  animal  heat  is  supplied, 
the  balance  of  carbonaceous  matter  may  be  trans 
formed  into  energy  required  for  the  activities  of 
life  and  work.  The  surplus  may  be  transformed 
into  products  of  commercial  value.     The   proteids  may 


144  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

also  give  commercial  products,  or  be  stored  in  the  sys- 
tem, and  finally  pass  off  in  excrement. 

While  vegetable  carbonaceous  matter  is  decompos- 
ing or  slowly  oxidizing,  it  may  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  and  act  beneficially  in  other 
ways.  About  one -half  of  the  dry  weight  of  plants 
is  carbon.  Carbonaceous  matter  may  be  used  to  im- 
prove the  soil,  but  plants  grow  in  earth  in  which  it 
is  entirely  wanting.  Therefore,  the  carbonaceous 
matter  in  foods  may  be  used  by  the  animal  for  the 
production  of  heat  and  energy,  or  transformed  into 
salable  carbonaceous  products,  without  reducing  the 
fertilizing  value  of  the  excrements.  The  albuminoids, 
or  proteids,  i.  e.,  potential  nitrogen,  are  used  by  the 
animal  for  building  and  nourishing  the  flesh,  tendons 
and  the  like,  and  when  they  have  been  in  the  sys- 
tem for  a  time  and  have  become  old,  they  are  thrown 
off,  chiefly  through  the  urinary  organs,  in  somewhat 
changed  forms,  and  are  replaced  by  fresh  albumin- 
oids taken  from  the  food  ;  so  that  if  the  animals 
are  not  gaining  in  weight  or  not  making  a  sur- 
plus product,  they  not  only  return  in  their  voidings 
nearly  all  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds,  but  also 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  which  their  rations 
contained.  It  will  be  seen  what  a  prominent  part 
domestic  animals  may  be  made  to  play  in  maintain- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  land. 

Heat  and  muscular  power  are  forms  of  force  or 
energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as  the  food  is  con- 
sumed in  the  body.  The  unit  commonly  used  in  this 
measurement   is  the  calory,  the  amount  of  heat  which 


Very    Narrow    Rations    Undesirable.  145 

would  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water 
4°  F.  The  following  general  estimate  has  been  made 
for  the  average  amount  of  potential  energy  in  one 
pound  of  each  of   the  classes  of  nutriments:* 

Calories. 

In  1  pound  of  protein  1 ,860 

In  1  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  1  pound  of  carbohydrates 1 .860 

It  is  estimated  that  one  unit  of  digestible  fat  is 
equal  to  a  little  over  two  units  of  albuminoids  (pro- 
teids)  for  the  production  of  heat.  A  narrow  ration  is 
usually  more  expensive  than  a  wide  one,  as  digestible 
proteids  cost  twice  per  unit  more  than  carbohydrates, 
while  the  former  does  not  produce  heat  as  satisfac- 
torily as   the    latter. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  cattle  foods 
containing  an  unusually  high  percentage  of  albumi- 
noids are  frequently  used  in  excess,  because  of  their 
low  price  and  the  high  value  of  the  excrements  of  the 
animals  which  consume  them.  An  extremely  narrow 
ration  may  sometimes  be  economical,  but  it  is  always 
dangerous,  as  it  tends  to  overload  the  kidneys  and 
disturb    the    normal    action    of   the   urinary  organs. 

The  kinds  of  food  consumed  modify  the  composi- 
tion and  value  of  the  resulting  excrements.  If  a 
ration  containing  a  sufficient  supply  of  carbohydrates 
("heat -producers")  and  a  superabundance  of  proteids 
("flesh -producers")  is  fed,  the  excrements  will  be 
more  valuable  and    contain  a   larger   relative    percent- 

*  Yearbook  of   the  Department  of    Agriculture,  1894,   p.  547.       Appendix  by 
W.  O.  Atwater. 

K 


146  The   Fertility    of  the   Land. 

age  of  potential  nitrogen  than  they  would  if  the 
ration  contained  only  a  sufficiency  of  flesh -formers 
and  a  superabundance  of  heat -producers.  Animals 
which  are  giving  milk  produce  poorer  excrements 
when  fed  easily  digested  rations  than  when  fed  those 
which  are  less  digestible.  Animals  liberally  fed  pro- 
duce richer  excrements  than  those  which  are  underfed. 

The  individuality  of  the  animal  may  modify  the 
character  of  the  excrements  in  a  marked  degree,  as 
some  animals  possess  greater  powers  to  transform 
their  food  into  surplus  products  than  others.  The 
greater  this  power,  the  more  valuable  the  animal 
and   the   less   valuable   the   excrement. 

The  amount  of  water  consumed  also  modifies  the 
value  of  the  manure  per  ton.  Rations  which  con- 
tain a  relatively  high  percentage  of  albuminoids  call 
for  larger  consumption  of  water  than  wide  or  car- 
bonaceous ones  do.  Hence  a  liberal  supply  of  albu- 
minoids tends  to  make  the  solid  excrements  watery, 
and  while  an  excessive  consumption  of  water  may 
increase  the  total  weight  of  excrements,  it  diminishes 
the  percentage  of  their  valuable  constituents. 

The  quantity  of  bedding  used  affects  the  quality 
of  the  manures.  If  the  bedding  is  poorer  than  the 
excrement,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  more  bedding 
used  the  lower  will  be  the  percentage  of  manurial 
value.  The  bedding  may  not  only  promote  the  com- 
fort of  the  animal,  but  it  may  also  conserve  excre- 
ments, and  therefore  manures  containing  a  moderate 
amount  of  straw  or  other  absorbents  may  be  as  rich 
in   the   end   as    those    containing   a   small  amount   or 


Deleterious   Manures.  147 

none,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  excrements  may  lose 
some  of  their  valuable  constituents  for  want  of  being 
mixed    with   absorbents. 

Manure  is  also  affected  by  the  kind  of  bedding 
used.  Pine  straw  is  believed  to  seriously  injure  it, 
while  pine  shavings  and  sawdust,  when  used  in 
moderate  quantities  and  applied  in  the  right  way, 
are  believed  not  to  be  injurious;  but  if  used  liber- 
ally, and  the  manure  is  placed  on  light  soils  in 
large  quantities  and  plowed  under,  serious  damage 
may  be  produced  during  droughts.  No  careful  and 
long- continued  experiments  have  yet  been  made  to 
determine  the  extent  or  the  real  cause  of  this  injury, 
but  observation  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ex- 
crements of  animals  mixed  with  shavings  are  not  so 
available  to  plants  as  when  mixed  with  straw.  It 
would  naturally  be  inferred  that  the  turpentine  and 
other  antiseptic  compounds  found  in  some  kinds  of 
sawdust  and  shavings,  and  especially  in  pine  straw, 
would  seriously  arrest  decomposition,  which  action  may 
be  undesirable.  Decomposition,  if  kept  within  proper 
limits,  is  desirable,  for  the  more  thoroughly  the 
organic  material  of  manures  is  broken  down  the  more 
available  their  constituents  become.  Manures  contain- 
ing large  amounts  of  sawdust  and  shavings,  if 
kept  moist,  and  prevented  from  heating  until  they 
are  thoroughly  broken  down,  lose  all  of  their  dele- 
terious characteristics.  Manures  containing  liberal 
quantities  of  dry  bedding  (which  decomposes  slowly) 
serve  their  best  purpose  when  spread  evenly  over 
grass  lands  in  the  fall.     Thus  distributed,  they  act  as 


148  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

a  mulch,  fertilizer,  conserver  of  moisture,  and  give  pro- 
tection to  the  roots  of  plants. 

Even  mixed  manures,  composed  partly  of  straw 
bedding,  may  do  injury,  especially  in  a  dry  time,  if 
applied  in  liberal  quantities  and  plowed  under,  since 
they  break  the  capillary  connection  between  the  sur- 
face soil  and  subsoil,  thus  causing  the  surface  soil  to 
become  drier  than  it  would  had  the  coarse  manures 
not  prevented  the  moisture  from  passing  upwards 
toward  the  surface.  King,*  in  three  years'  experi- 
ment with  barn  manures,  found  "That  for  manured 
fallow  ground  the  surface  foot  contained  18.75  tons 
more  water  per  acre  than  adjacent  and  similar  but 
unmanured  land  did,  while  the  second  foot  contained 
9.28  tons  and  the  third  6.38  tons  more  water,  mak- 
ing a  total  difference  in  favor  of  the  manured  ground 
amounting  to  34.41  tons  per  acre.  The  largest  ob- 
served difference  was  72.04  tons  in  the  dry  season 
of  1891.  Early  in  the  spring,  on  ground  manured 
the  year  before  and  fallow,  there  was  an  observed 
difference  amounting  to  31.58  tons  per  acre.  *  * 
*  *  *  Wetting  the  surface  of  sand  with  water 
leached  from  manure  reduced  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface  from  64.98  pounds  per  unit 
area  to  32.72  pounds  in  the  same  time,  under  other- 
wise  identical   conditions." 


*«The  Soil,"  pp.  289-290. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

MANURES    PRODUCED    BY    VARIOUS    ANIMALS. 

The  amounts  and  values  of  the  excrements, 
mixed  or  unmixed  with  bedding,  which  are  produced 
by  different  classes  of  farm  animals  in  given  lengths 
of  time  when  fed  on  varied  amounts  and  kinds  of 
food,  have  been  determined  so  often  and  with  such 
painstaking  accuracy  that  full  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  the  results.  While  it  is  true  that  the  three  ele- 
ments of  chief  value  in  manures  and  animal  ex- 
crements,— nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, — are 
not  so  available  as  they  are  in  skilfully  manufactured 
commercial  fertilizers,  yet  they  are  usually  computed 
at  commercial  prices,  for  there  should  be  some  conven- 
ient and  uniform  standard  upon  which  to  base  com- 
parisons and  with  which  to  make  calculations.  On 
the  other  hand,  manures  furnish  available  humus, 
and  a  mulch  if  they  are  spread  upon  the  surface,  and 
they  also  tend  to  increase  the  water -holding  power 
of  the  soil,  and  to  improve  its  texture  or  physical 
condition.  In  many  cases  it.  is  believed  that  these 
benefits  are  a  full  equivalent  for  the  less  soluble 
character  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  manures  as 
compared  with  commercial  fertilizers.  When  the  soil 
has    a    reasonable    amount    of    easily    available  plant- 

(149) 


150  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

food,  it  is  probable  that  such  may  be  the  case,  bnt 
the  ultimate  welfare  of  plants  depends  so  much  on 
a  healthy,  vigorous  start  and  abundant  root  devel- 
opment, that  the  more  quickly -acting  commercial 
fertilizers  may  be  more  valuable  than  the  slower- 
acting  farm  manures,  whenever  the  land  is  deficient 
in  readily  available  plant -food.  Careful  observations 
and  experiments  only  can  determine  the  relative 
values  of  the  constituents  found  in  fertilizers  and 
manures.  The  final  productive  value,  as  evidenced 
in  the  harvest,  depends  so  much  on  the  skill  of  the 
farmer,  on  climate,  character  of  the  plant,  and  rain- 
fall, that  it  can  never  be  certainly  predicted  whether 
profit  or  loss  will  result  in  the  purchase  and  appli- 
cation of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in  any 
form.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  the  careful  hus- 
banding of  farm  manures,  and  the  application  of 
them  in  reasonable  quantities  in  almost  any  form,  re- 
sult in  improved  fertility  and  increased  profits  in 
the  final   outcome. 

In  the  computations  of  the  value  of  manures  and 
fertilizers,  the  question  must  constantly  arise  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  "If  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
are  worth  7  and  4.5  cents  per  pound  respectively,  is 
the  nitrogen  worth  15  cents  per  pound?"  If  it  is 
secured  in  the  usual  commercial  form,  it  cannot  be 
purchased  for  much  less.  If  the  land  is  deficient  in 
mineral  plant -food,  such  cannot  be  augmented  without 
transporting  it  to  the  field  in  some  form  or  other. 
True,  it  can  be  made  more  available  by  tillage  and 
other  means.     With  nitrogen,  however,  it  is  different, 


Nitrogen   Economically   Secured.  151 

for  positive  additions  can  be  made  to  the  soil  by  the 
use  of  leguminous  plants;  and  this,  too,  with  little 
added  cost,  as  clover  and  similar  plants  furnish  for- 
age of  value  equal  to  the  cost  of  their  production, 
while  the  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble  augments 
the  store  of  it  which  was  in  the  soil  before  the  clover 
was  grown.  Nitrogen  can  be  secured  quickly  and 
cheaply  by  purchasing  and  feeding  food  containing 
a  high  percentage  of  albuminoids.  Then,  too,  there 
may  be  a  profit  in  feeding  the  animals,  and  if  so, 
the  value  of  the  manures  produced  is  an  additional 
profit;  or  it  may  be  considered  that  the  manures  are 
secured  at  no  cost  but  the  hauling  and  distributing. 

The  foregoing  discussion  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  under  some  circumstances,  nitrogen  is  not  worth 
to  the  farmer  its  cost  price  of  15  cents  per  pound, 
and  that  it  is  usually  better  for  the  farmer  to 
secure  it  through  leguminous  plants  and  manures 
from  animals  fed  a  fairly  narrow  ration,  than  to 
pay  even  10  cents  per  pound  for  it  in  commercial 
forms;  so  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  author  that  all  of 
the  tables  of  values  given  in  the  foregoing  and  suc- 
ceeding chapters  should  be  amended  to  correspond 
with  local  conditions  and  needs. 

Tables  are  published  which  give  estimated  trade 
values  for  fertilizers,  but  they  are  no  more  accurate, 
when  reduced  to  actual  value  as  secured  by  the 
farmer,  than  estimated  values  for  farm  manures  are. 

In  some  towns  stable  manure  is  given  away,  in 
others  it  may  be  sold  for  a  dollar  a  load.  In  the 
production    of   some    special    crops,  the    gardener   may 


152  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

be  willing  to  pay  even  more  than  15  cents  per 
pound  for  nitrogen,  if  he  is  not  able  to  get  it  for 
less,  rather  than  to  do  without  it. 

A   DISCUSSION   OP  THE   MANURE   OP   CATTLE. 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station*  the  manure 
produced  in  twenty -four  hours  by  eighteen  Jersey 
and  Holstein  grade  cows  in  full  milk  was  weighed 
and  analyzed.  The  following  tables  set  forth  the 
detailed  results, t  and  also  the  amounts  and  kinds  of 
food  used.  The  regular  winter  rations  for  a  day 
were  fed,  as  follows: 

Mixed  hay 114  lbs. 

Maize  ensilage   893     ' ' 

Mangolds 186    " 

Mixed  food 154    " 

The  mixed  food  was  composed  of  12  parts  of 
wheat  bran,  9  parts  cotton -seed  meal,  3  parts  maize 
meal  and  1  part  malt  sprouts,  by  weight,  fed  twice 
a  day. 

TABLE   XI. 

Results  of  the  feeding. 

18  cows  for  Average  per 

Weight  of  18  cows,  20,380  lbs.  1  day.  cow  per  day. 

Food  consumed 1,347.      lbs.  75.     lbs. 

Water  drunk 876.        "  49. 

Total  excretion 1,452.5      "  81. 

Nitrogen 7.35    "  .41    •  • 

Phosphoric  acid 5.01    "  .28   " 

Potash 7.40    "  .41   " 


♦Bull.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  May,  1891. 

tNitrogen  is  here  and  elsewhere  computed,  uuless  otherwise  specified,  at  IS 
cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  7  cents,  and  potash  :it  4l4  cents  per  pound 


Estimated    Values  of  Manures.  153 


TABLE   XI.  — CONTINUED. 


Weight  of  18  cows,  20,380  lbs. 

Value  of  nitrogen 

Value  of  phosphoric  acid 

Value  of  potash 


18  cows  for 
1  day. 

Average  per 
cow  per  day. 

$1.10 

$0.06 

.35 

.02 

.33 

.02 

$1.78  $0.10 

TABLE    XII. 

Percentage  composition  of  the  excrement. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 51 

Phosphoric  acid 35 

Potash 51 

Computed  value  per  ton,  $2.46. 

A  few  days  after  the  above  investigation,  a  second 
one  was  made  with  four  cows  for  twenty -four  hours, 
in  full  milk,  under  similar  conditions: 

TABLE   XIII. 

Feeding  and  manure— Gross  figures. 

Lbs. 

Food  per  cow,  per  day    7<> 

Water      "  "         40 

Excrements  per  cow,  per  day 82 

Total  solid  excrements,  for  four  cows 255 

Total  liquid         "  72.25 

Composition. 

Solids,  *  Liquids,  *  Mixed.  * 

Nitrogen 26  1.32  .49 

Phosphoric  acid 28  .22 

Potash 20  1.  .38 

Value  per  ton,  $2.08. 

The  amounts  of  the  fertilizing  materials  are  set 
forth    in    the    following    table: 


154  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


TABLE   XIV. 

Experiment  with 

, Solid 

lbs.     value. 

four  cows,  one  day. 

■ — Liquid — .        < Both ■ 

lbs.     value.         lbs.      value. 

Daily  av. 

val.  per 

cow. 

Nitrogen 65     $0.10 

.95      $0.14        1.60      $0.24 

$0.06 

Phosphoric  acid. .     .71          .05* 

.71          .05 

.01+ 

.72          .03        1.22          .05 

.01+ 

1.86  .17      1.67  .17        3.53  .34  .085 

Investigations  in  1883  and  1884t  with  three  cows 
three  days  gave  the  following  results  (the  average 
weight  of  the  cows  being  1,192  lbs.): 

TABLE  XV. 

Gross  figures  of  experiment  with  three  cows  three  days. 

lbs. 

Clover  hay  consumed 122 

Cut  maize  stalks  consumed 41 

Cotton-seed  meal         "         45 

Malt  sprouts  consumed 42 

Maize  meal  "  42 

Milk  produced 285 

Manure,  including  45  lbs.  cut  maize  stalk  bedding 802 

The  food  contained  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  estimated  at  $1.60.  The  manure  was  not 
analyzed,  but,  allowing  that  it  contained  60  per  cent 
of  the  fertilizing  material  in  the  rations,  the  estimated 
value  would  be,  for  the  three  days,  $0.96  or  $0.10% 
per  cow  per  day. 

The  entire  product  of  manure  at  Cornell  in 
1883-4  was  kept  in  a  covered  barnyard.  The  accu- 
mulated mixed    and    trampled   manure   of    cattle   and 

*  There  was  only  a  trace  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  urine. 
tThird  Report  Cornell  Exp.  Sta..  1885. 


Conserved   Manures.  155 

horses  was  about  two  feet  thick.  A  large  number  of 
samples  were  taken  at  various  depths,  chopped  fine, 
mixed  and  analyzed,  with  the  following  results: 


TABLE   XVI. 

Manure  from  a  covered  yard. 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 72.95 

Nitropen 78  at  $0.15 

Phosphoric  acid 40  at      .07 

Potash 84  at      .0425 

Value  per  ton,  $3.61. 


During  the  winter,  311  double- box  wagon  loads 
were  produced.  Every  tenth  load  was  weighed. 
The  loads  averaged,  in  round  numbers,  3,000  pounds 
each.  The  winter's  output  of  manure,  therefore,  was 
about  466  tons.  These  results  were  so  astonishing, 
and  the  data  so  imperfect,  that  the  following  year 
the  number  and  kinds  of  animals,  the  time  em- 
braced in  the  investigation,  and  the  weight  of  the 
manure,  were  all  carefully  noted. 

From  October  1,  1884  to  March  2,  1885,  199.25 
tons  of  manure  were  produced  at  Cornell  by  a  herd 
of  12  spring  calves,  7  winter  calves,  1  bull,  24  cows. 
12  horses  and  1  colt,  57  animals  in  all.  Allowing 
that  the  20  young  animals  were  equal  to  10  adults, 
there  would  be  the  equivalent  of  47  full  grown  ani- 
mals. Each  load  of  manure  was  weighed,  sampled 
and  prepared  for  the  chemist,  as  described  above. 
The    numerical    results    are    as   follows: 


1">6  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

TABLE   XVII. 

Composition  and  computed  values  of  samples. 

Moisture 75.57  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 68    "     " 

Phosphoric  acid 29    "      " 

Potash 70    "      " 

Nitrogen  at  15  cents $2.04  per  ton. 

Phosphoric  acid  at  7  cents 41    "     " 

Potash  at  4  M  cents 60    "     " 

$3.05 

For  the  150  days $607.71 

Per  cow  per  day .0862 


The  following  table  from  Morton's  Cyclopoedia  of 
Agriculture,  Volume  II.,  gives  the  average  production 
of  manure  in  several  experiments,  but  the  average 
weight  and  age  of  the  animals  are  not  given,  and  in 
some  cases  the  food  of  the  animals  was  succulent,  in 
others  air  dried: 

TABLE    XVIII. 

Comparative  amounts  of  excrements. 

Solids.  Liquids. 

A  horse,  annual 12.000  lbs.  3,000  lbs. 

Acow,annual 20,000    "  8,000    " 

A  sheep,  annual 760    "  380    " 

A  pig,  annual 1,800    "  1,200    " 

In  order  to  present  a  more  detailed  view  of  the 
quantity,  composition  and  estimated  value  of  farm 
manures  which  are  made  under  various  conditions  and 
in  divers  places,  the  following  figures  are  transcribed 
from  various  sources; 


Amounts   and    Values   of  Manure.  157 

TABLE   XIX. 

Manure  from  cattle  fed  exclusively  upon  the  waste 
from  a  cotton-seed  oil  mill. 

(Bull.  No.  1,  Vol.  II.,  Tennessee  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Moisture 77.50 

Nitrogen o3  at  15  cents,  $1.59 

Phosphoric  acid 22  "    7       "         .31 

Potash 36"    4.5"         .32 

$2.22 

TABLE  xx. 

A  4-year-old  Jersey  in  milk,  for  nine  days  produced  14.89  lbs.  of  milk 
and  the  following  amounts  of  excrements  per  day. 

(Annual  report  for  1891,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Solids   .< 49.5  lbs. 

Liquids 21.      " 

Total  per  day 70.5   " 


TABLE   XXI. 

Value  of  manure  from  six  cows. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Average  weight  of  animals 929.8  lbs. 

"  "        "  solid  excrement 42.      " 

Value  per  ton  of  solid  excrements  of  each   animal. 

Jem  and  Meg $1.31 

"      "       "    2d  trial 1.38 

Nellie 1.84 

Spot 1.35 

Broad 2.01 

Whitey 2.11 

Average $1.77 


158  The    Fertility  of  the   Land. 

TABLE   XXI.— CONTINUED. 

Urine  per  day. 

Jem 15.9  lbs. 

Meg 15.4  " 

Flora 21.  " 

Spot 8.9  " 

Star C.9  " 

Broad  17.9  " 

Nellie  20.5  " 

Average 15.2     '• 

No  analysis  of   the  urine  is  given,  but  it   is  stated 
to   have   been  even  more  valuable   than   the  solids. 


TABLE   XXII. 

Mixed  manure,  young  cattle  and  a  few  horses. 

(Report  for  1889,  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  tot 

Moisture 77.08 

Nitrogen 53  at  15  cents,  $1.59 

Phosphoric  acid 34"     7      "  .48 

Potash 71"     4.5"  .64 

$2.71 

TABLE  XXIII. 

Mature  cows  liberally  fed,  producing  a  fair  amount  of  milk 

all  stages  of  gestation. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Per  cent  Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 71.69 

Nitrogen 43  8.6  at  15  cents,  $1.29 

Phosphoric  acid 3  6.     "     7     "          .42 

Potash 48  9.6"    4.5"          .43 

$2.14 


Composition   of   Various   Manures.  159 

TABLE   XXIV. 

Old  yara  manure  from  young  cattle  fed  hay  in  yard.    Well  rotted, 

washed  manure,  weight  and  bulk  reduced   by  exposure. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Per  cent.     Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 54.7 

Nitrogen 46  9.2  at  15  cents,  $1.38 

Phosphoric  acid 72  14.4  "     7      "         1.00 

Potash Hi  3.2"     4.5"  .14 

$2.52 

TABLE    XXV. 

Amount    of   milk  and    of  solid  and   liquid  excrements  produced   by  a 

herd  of  12  cows  for  one  year,  computed  by  weighing  the  amounts 

of  solids  and   liquids  for  one  day    in  each   month. 

(Agr.  College,  Denmark,  1889-92,  Tiddskr.   Landokon.  12,  1893.) 

Lbs.  per  cow  per  year. 

Milk 7,519 

Solid  excrements 18,432 

Urine 6,454 

Composition  of  urine. 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 1.187  at  15    cents,  $3.56 

Phosphoric  acid 021   "  7        "           .03 

Potash 1.272"  4.5     "         1.14 

$4.73 
Per  cow  per  year 15.26 

Urine  of  entire  herd  per  year $183.12 

TABLE   XXVI. 

Manure  from  milch  cows. 
(Report  for  1890,  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.     Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 82.42 

Nitrogen 42  8.4     at  15    cents,  $1.26 

Phosphoric  acid 204        4.08    "    7         "  .29 

Potasn 3  6.         "    4.5     "  .27 

$1.82 


160  The    Fertility  of  the    Land. 

This    manure    (Table   XXVI.)    was     kept    closely 
packed   in  a  manure   house   having    a  cement   floor. 

TABLE    XXVII. 

Fresh  cow  manure. 
(S.  W.  Johnson.) 

Per  cent.    Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 85.3 

Nitrogen 38        7.6  at  15    cents,  $1.14 

Phosphoric  acid 16        3.2"    7         "  .22 

Potash 36        7.2"    4.5      "  .32 

$1.68 

TABLE   XXVIII. 

Cow  manure  from  center  of  dung  heap. 
(Germany,  Schmid.) 

Per  cent.     Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 77.71 

Nitrogen 54        10.8  at  15    cents,  $1.62 

Phosphoric  acid 13  2.6"    7        "  .18 

Potash 46  9.2"    4.5     "  .41 

$2.21 

TABLE    XXIX. 

From  cows  fed  100  lbs.  green  clover,  5  lbs.  rye  straw  per  day. 

(R.  H.  Hoffman.) 

Per  cent.  Lbs.  per  ton. 

Moisture 72.87 

Nitrogen 79  15.8  at  15    cents,  $2.3/ 

Phosphoric  acid 20  4.     "    7        "           .28 

Potash 1.69  33.8"   4.5     "        1.52 

$4.17 


Summary.  161 

TABLE    XXX. 

Fresh  cow  manure  with   litter. 
(Wolff.) 

Percent.  Fibs,  per  ton. 

Moisture 77.5 

Nitrogen 34  6.8  at  15    cents,  $1.02 

Phosphoric  acid 16  3.2  ••    7        "           .22 

Potash 40  8.     "    4.5     "           .36 


$1.60 

TABLE    XXXI.  • 

Summary  of  the  computed   values  of  the  cattle  manures. 

Per  ton. 

<  'ornell  University  Experiment  Station $2.46 

"       2.08 

"       3.61 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station  2.22 

Connecticut        "  "  2.71 

2.14 

(rotted) 2.52 

1.82 

S.  W.  Johnson 1.68 

Schmid   (Germany) 2.21 

R.  H.  Hoffman 4.17 

Wolff 1 .60 

Agriculture  College,  Denmark  (urine  (  4.73 

New  York,  Geneva  (solids)    1.77 


Aveiage  per  ton $2.43 

A  few   of   the    samples    were    slightly    mixed    with 
manure  from  other  animals. 

TABLE   XXXII. 

Cow  manure,  various  kinds  of  feeding. 

(Dr.  Thompson,  Morton'R  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture.) 

Excrements 

Cows  fed  100  lbs.  <?rass,  produced  per  day 71       lbs. 

"      80    "         "      4%  barley,  produced  per  day 78 

"        "      25    "     hay,  10%  crushed  malt,  produced  per  day. . .     77 

"        "     168     "     turnips,  11  straw,  produced  per  day 135%     '• 


162  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

TABLE   XXXIII. 

Manure  from  calves. 

(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Exp.  No.  1  No.  1l 

Length  of  experiments  in  days 12.  15. 

Weight  of  two  calves  in  pounds 379.  580. 

Pounds  of  nitrogen  consumed 5.042  3.064 

"        "  phosphoric  acid  consumed 1.939  1.308 

"        "  potash  consumed 1.519  1.871 

Pounds  of  nitrogen  recovered 1.983  2.22 

"        "  phosphoric  acid  recovered 314  .820 

"        "  potash  recovered 1.556  1.642 

Manure  per  ton $1.69  $2.67 

Excrement  per  ton $1.60  $2.79 

Lot  1  was  fed  largely  on  skimmed  milk,  receiving 
707  pounds  during  the  experiment.  Lot  2  had  no 
skimmed  milk,  its  food  consisting  of  maize  and 
linseed  meal,  bran  and  hay.  The  potash  consumed 
in  experiment  No.  1  is  slightly  less  than  the  amount 
recovered.  This  discrepancy  is  no  larger  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  fact  that  no  two  samples  can 
ever  be  exactly  the  same.  It  will  be  noticed,  that  in 
experiment  No.  2,  nearly  all  of  the  potash  consumed 
was  recovered  in  the  excrements.  It  is  evident  that 
while  these  young  animals  utilized  a  large  proportion 
of  the  nitrogen  and  a  fairly  liberal  proportion  oi  the 
phosphoric  acid,  they  stored  up  only  a  small  portion, 
if  any,  of   the  potash. 

STUDIES    OF    HORSE    MANURE. 

The  value  of  manure  from  horses,  like  that  from 
other  species   of    animals,  is   modified    by   age,    food, 


Horse   Manure,  How   Modified.  163 

and  kind  and  amount  of  bedding.  While  the  ex- 
crements contain  less  moisture  than  those  produced 
by  cows,  the  liberal  amount  of  bedding  used  in  the 
horse  stable  usually  reduces  the  value  of  the  manure 
per  ton  to  that  produced  by  the  cows. 

Nine  horses  produced  in  one  day,  when  not  at  work, 
bedded  with  38%  lbs.  straw,  as  follows  (Bull.  13,  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta.  1889): 

Weight  of  manure 529.5  lbs. 

"        "  excrements 491 .      " 

Average  excreted  per  horse  per  day 54.5    " 


TABLE    XXXIV. 

Composition  of  manure  of  above  horses. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water  70.79 

Nitrogen 51  at  15    cents,  $1.53 

Phosphoric  acid 21"    7         "  .29 

Potash 53  "    4.5     "  .48 

$2.30 
Per  horse  per  day .062 


TABLE    XXXV. 

Gross  figures  from  eight  horses  one  day,  when  not  at  work. 

(Bull.  13.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Lbs. 

Total  weight,  manure  and  bedding 496. 

Weight  of  bedding 30. 

Total  weight  of  excrements,  solid  and  liquid 466. 

Average  excreted  per  horse  per  day 58.25 

Per  ton  of  manure $2.30 

Per  horse  per  day. 075 


164  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

TABLE   XXXVI. 

Manure  from  all  the,  horses  in  the  stables  for  7  days. 
(Bull.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Excrement 3,319  lbs. 

Straw  bedding 681     ' ' 

4,000      ■• 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Water 72. 

Nitrogen 49  at  15    cents,  $1 .47 

Phosphoric  acid 37"    7        "  .52 

Potash 90"    4.5      "  .81 

$2.80 

TABLE   XXXVII. 

Giving  the  composition  of   the  straw  used  for  bedding.     Owing    to  the 
small  amount  of  water  content  as  compared  with  the  manure- 
it  shows  a  relatively  high  value.      Wheat  straw 
used  for  bedding,  sampled  in  April. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 6.70 

Nitrogen 61  at  15    cents,  $1.83 

Phosphoric  acid 28  "    7        "  .39 

Potash 70"    4.5      "  .63 

$2.85 

TABLE   XXXVIII. 

Excrements  from  10  draft   horses  at   work  for  11   days,  two  of    which 

were  Sundays.     On  the  other  days  they  were  out  of  the 

stable  an  average  of  about  eight  hours. 

Total  excrements,  3,461  lbs. 

(Cornell.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 47  at  15  cents,  $1.41 

Phosphoric  acid 39"    7       "         .55 

Potash 94  "    4.5    "         .84 

$2.80 
Average  per  horse  per  day .043 


Sum mn nj    of   Horse    Manure.  105 

Computing  the  loss  of  excrements  while  the  horses 
were  at  work  from  the  results  given  in  the  following 
tables,  it  is  found  that  three -fifths  of  the  excrements 
were  saved.  If  all  had  been  saved,  the  result  would 
have  been  a  little  more  than  7  cents  per  day  per  horse. 

TABLE   XXXIX. 

Amount  and    content    of   manure   from   four  work  horses  and  our 
2-year-old  colt  in  24  hours. 

(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1893.) 

Total  weight  of  horses G,410       lbs. 

Land  plaster  used 129        " 

Straw  bedding 112.75   " 

Total  weight  of  manure 555        ' ' 

Composition  of  manure. 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Water 48.09 

Nitrogen 49  at  15    cents,  $1.47 

Phosphoric  acid 26  "    7  '"  .36 

Potash 48"    4.5       ••  .43 


Manure $2.26 

Excrements 3.20 

Excrements  per  year  per  1,000  lbs.,  live  weight $27.74 

"  "    day     "        "       "        "  "        076 

Excrements  recovered  per  1,000  lbs.  per  day 48.8  lbs. 

TABLE   XL. 

Summary  of  computed  values  of  horse  manure. 

(Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  ton. 

9  horses $2.30 

8       "      2.30 

All  horses  in  stable 2.80 

10  draft  horses 2.80 

4  horses  and  one  colt 2.26 

Excrements 3.20 

Straw  bedding,  Table  xxxvii 2.85 

Average  of  all  manure 2.49 


166  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

This  shows  that  the  computed  value  of  the  ex- 
crements is  nearly  one -half  of  the  cost  of  the  food. 
Experience  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  this  value  can 
seldom  or  never  be  realized  from  the  manures  when 
applied  to  the  land;  but  there  is  no  other  way  of 
making  comparisons  between  various  kinds  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  without  using  a  uniform  standard  for 
comparison.  As  has  been  explained,  the  real  values 
of  both  manures  and  fertilizers  to  the  farmer  are 
dependent  upon  so  many  conditions  that  the  true 
recoverable  value  can  never  be  known  in  advance. 
It  would,  perhaps,  be  safe  to  value  barn  manures 
at  fully  one -half  of  their  computed  values,  as  shown 
by  the  tables. 

LIVERY    STABLE    MANURE. 

Livery  stables  in  villages  in  the  grain -growing  dis- 
tricts often  arrange  with  the  farmer  for  fresh  straw 
bedding  without  charge,  the  resulting  manure  to  be- 
long to  the  farmer  who  furnishes  the  straw.  From 
investigations  made  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  from  facts  furnished  by  Director  H.  P. 
Armsby,  State  College,  Pa.,  the  following  conclusions 
may  be  drawn: 

That  a  ton  of  straw  as  it  comes  from  a  thresher, 
and  as  used  in  village  livery  stables,  will  result  in 
five  tons  of  manure,  if  drawn  as  soon  as  made. 

That  fresh  horse  manure  computed  as  above  is 
worth  $2.45  per  ton. 

That    a    ton    of    straw,     computed    as    before,    is 


Sheep   Manure   Affected   by   Food.  167 

worth  for  manurial  purposes  $2.75  per  ton.     We  then 
have  data  for  the  following  figures: 

Five  tons  of  manure  at  $2.45 $12.25 

Less  one  ton  of  straw  at  $2.75 2.75 


$9.50 


There  appears  to  be  a  value  of  $9.50  to  compen- 
sate for  drawing  one  ton  of  straw  to  the  village 
and  five  of  manure  back  to  the  farm;  but  if  the 
manure  is  thrown  out  of  the  stable  under  the  eaves 
and  left  for  any  considerable  time,  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  its  value  will  probably  be  lost.  Then,  too,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  fertilizing  constitu- 
ents in  the  manure  are  computed  at  liberal  prices. 

DISCUSSION   OP   SHEEP   EXCREMENTS. 

Two  sheep  were  fed  in  each  of  six  experiments, 
each  animal  standing  on  a  galvanized  iron  pan 
(Bull.  56,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1893).  In  order  to 
show  the  effect  of  foods  on  the  composition  of  ma- 
nure, the  following  tables  are  given: 


TABLE   XL1. 

Food 

connumed. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

No.  of 

U.s. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

wheat 

Cot. -seed 

linseed 

exp. 

Water. 

hay. 

maize. 

oats. 

bran. 

meal. 

tueal. 

1 

185.75 

81.25 

11.5 

11.5 

2 

144.25 

58.5 

11.25 

11.25 

3 

188. 

50. 

40.:.:. 

41.25 

4 

298. 

92.5 

35.29 

17.64 

8.82 

5 

374.25 

76.5 

38.14 

19.07 

9.54 

6 

194.2.-. 

t;7. 

4.56 

17.78 

8.8* 

.77 

168  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

Composition  of  food  consumed. 

No.  of  exp 1  2  3  4  5  6 

Days  of  exp 15  12  13  16  14  21 

Nitrogen  (lbs.)  .   1.92         1.48        2.298      4.345  4.25  2.445 

Phos.  acid  (lbs.)     .531        .425        .814      2.12  2.19  1.12 

Potash  (lbs.)  ...  1.28  .949      1.078      2.299  2.14  1.43 

Excrement  recovered. 

Nitrogen  (lbs.)  .  1.08          .994      1.8          2.83  1.59  1.758 

Phos.  acid  (lbs.)     .35          .298        .665       1.466  1.08  1.1(6 

Potash  (lbs.)  ...  1.089        .830        .963      1.06  .77  .541 

Manure  per  ton.. $3. 16      $2.65      $3.30      $3.49      $3.15    $4.17 
Excrement,  ton  .  3.35        3.01        4.55        6.62        3.44      4.85 

In  the  above  experiment,  fine -cut  wheat  straw  of 
known  composition  was  used  for  bedding  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  keep  the  sheep  clean.  The  sheep  were 
medium -sized  grade  Shropshires  liberally  fed  on  grain, 
beets  and  hay. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  No.  3  how  the  relatively 
more  liberal  grain  ration  raised  the  value  of  the  ex- 
crements, as  compared  with  1  and  2,  over  $1.00  per 
ton;  and  it  is  also  interesting  to  note  in  experiments 
4,  5  and  6,  how  markedly  the  value  of  the  excre- 
ments is  affected  by  the  character  of  the  food.  The 
average  value  of  the  manure  of  three  pens  of  sheep, 
fed  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration,  as  com- 
pared with  the  three  pens  fed  more  liberally  on  a 
narrower   ration,   is  as  follows: 

TABLE    XLII. 

Average  computed  value  of  excrements  of  sheep. 

Pens  1,  2  and  3  $3.64  per  ton. 

"     4,  5    "    6   4.97    "      " 

Average  of  all  $4  30    "      " 


Sheep,  Calf  and   Pig   Manure.  169 

TABLE   XLIII. 

Three  sheep,  fed  33  2-3  days  standing  on  galvanized  pans; 
weight  of  excrements,  723  lbs. 
(Bull.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1891.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen i 1.      at  15  cents,  $3.00 

Phosphoric  acid 08  '•     7     "  .11 

Potash 1.21"     4.5"         1.09 

$4.20 

TABLE    XLIV. 

Average  percentage  of  fertilizing  elements  recovered  in  all  experiment*. 

Nitrogen,  $  Phos.  acid,  #  Potash,  2 

Sheep  02  .73  .C6 

Calves 50  .39  .03 

Pigs 80  .73  .80 

* 

The  preceding  tables  show  that  the  total  values  and 
the  percentages  of  fertilizing  constituents  vary,  as 
might  be  expected.  The  percentage  recovered  with 
swine  is  larger  than  with  sheep  and  calves.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  swine  digest  and  assimi- 
late a  larger  amount  of  the  carbohydrates  and  a  less 
amount,  taken  together,  of  the  other  constituents, 
than  either  sheep  or  calves  do.  The  amount  of  fer- 
tilizing elements  recovered  is  dependent  on  so  many 
conditions,  as  the  power  to  assimilate  food,  the  age 
and  species,  and  the  kind  and  quantity  of  surplus 
products  produced  by  the  animal,  that  only  a  general 
average  can  be  reached,  which  must  be  amended  as 
experiments  throw  more  light  on  the  subject. 

Sheep  have   been    so    frequently  used    for    conduct 
ing    digestion     and     other    experiments,    that     it     was 
hoped   when    this   book   was   begun   that   extended  data 


170  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

could  be  secured,  but  it  is  found  that  the  digestion 
experiments  furnish  little  material  which  is  applica- 
ble to  the  manure  problem,  since,  in  order  to  con- 
duct digestion  experiments  accurately,  the  animals 
used  of  necessity  are  placed  under  abnormal  and 
uncomfortable  conditions. 

The  following  figures  show  the  cost  of  food  and 
computed  value  of  manures  of  fattening  lambs. 
Twelve  lambs  were  fed  in  four  lots.  They  were 
shorn  in  November  and  fed  until  April. 

TABLE   XLV. 

Manurial   value  of  the  rations  fed,  allowing  that  80  per  cent   was  re- 
covered in  the  excrements^— Pounds. 
(Bull.  8,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1889.) 

Cotton-seed  Timothy  Man-                      Clover 

meal.       Bran.  Maize.       hay.  golds.  Turnips,     hay. 

Lot  111..  238          228  125          97 

Lot  IV..   106          233  151          49          312 

LotV...     62            62  204          255  143          99 

Lot  VI..     62  62  208  234 

Cost  of  ration, 

Cost  of  Manurial  less 

ration.  value.  value  of  manure. 

Lot  III   (carbonaceous) $3.70  $1.12  $2.58 

Lot  IV  (nitrogenous)  4.66  3.56  1.10 

Lot  V  (intermediate,  with  roots)     4.78  2.10  2.68 

Lot  VI  (           "        without    "    )     4.51  1.97  2.54 


$17.65  $8.75  $8.90 

From  the  above,  it  appears  that  the  computed  value 
of  the  manure  from  fattening  lambs,  as  compared  with 
the  cost  of  food,   is  as  follows  : 

Cost  of  food $17.65 

Value  of  manure 8.75 


Constituents   of  Pig   Manure.  171 

MANURE   AND   EXCREMENTS   OF   SWINE. 

The     following     statistics     give  the     percentages, 

amounts,   and    computed   values   of  three  constituents 

of    the   excrements   and    manure  of  pigs   and   mature 
swine. 

TABLE   XLVI. 

Pig  manure. 

(9th  Annual  Report  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.) 

Ration  about  75  per  cent  maize  ensilage,  25  per  cent  bran  and  middlings 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 54  at  15    cents,  $1.62 

Phosphoric  acid 06"    7         "  .92 

Potash 73"    4.5      "  .65 

$3.19 

Ration  about  75  per  cent  maize  on  cob,  25  per  cent  bran  and  middlings. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 57  at  15    cents,  $1.71 

Phosphoric  acid 83"    7        "         1.16 

Potash 37  "   4.5     "  .33 

$3.20 

TABLE   XLVII. 

Hogs  fed  on  bone  garbage  and  maize  meal. 
(Report  for  1890,  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 65.23 

Nitrogen 58  at  15    cents,  $1.74 

Phosphoric  acid 80"   7        "        1.12 

Potash 10"    4.5     "  .09 

$2.95 


172  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

TABLE    XI-VIII. 

Pig  manure.  — Two  lots  of  pigs,  four  in  each,  fed  standing  on  galvan- 
ized iron  pans  seven  days.    Lot  1  fed  maize  meal ;  lot  2 
fed  two  parts  maize  meal  and  1  of  flesh  meal. 

(Bull.  27,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1891.) 

Composition  of  excrements. 

Carbonaceous  Nitrogenous 

ration,  ration, 

Lot  1.  Lot  2.        Average, 

Percent.  Percent.      Percent. 

Nitrogen 74  .92  .83 

Phosphoric  acid . 01  .06  .04 

Potash 58  .64  .61 

Per  ton $2.94  $3.41  $3.18 

The  pigs  used  in  these  experiments  were  taken  from 
two  lots,  one  of  which,  for  some  time  previous,  had 
been  feed  a  nitrogenous  and  the  other  a  carbonaceous 
ration,  and  this  accounts  for  the  difference  in  the 
weights  of  the  two  lots  when  put  on  pans.  The  four 
pigs  fed  the  carbonaceous  ration  weighed  426  lbs. ; 
those  fed  a  nitrogenous  ration  weighed  600  lbs. 

TABLE  XLIX. 

Value    of  manure   per   year  per  pig    of    100  lbs.,  fed  on  a  narrow  or 
nitrogenous  ration. 

Nitrogen $2.64 

Phosphoric  acid 08 

Potash 52 

Per  year $3.24 

Value    of  manure  per  year  per  pig   of    100  lbs.,    fed   on    a    wide    or 
carbonaceous  ration. 

Nitrogen $0.91 

Phosphoric  acid 091 

Potash 183 

Per  year $1. 184 


Carbonaceous   vs.  Nitrogenous   Rations.         173 

Computed  value  per  year  per  ion  lbs.  live  weight. 

Fed  on  a  narrow  or  nitrogenous  ration $2.16 

"    "  "  wide      "  carbonaceous    "      79 


TABLE    L. 

Amounts  and  value  of  manure  produced  by  pigs  fed  for  seven  days, 

standing  on  large  galvanized  iron  pans.     Three 

pigs  in  each  experiment. 

(Bull.  50,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1893.) 

Food  consumed. 

Wheat  Linseed      Meat 

Skim  milk.    Maize  meal.       bran.  meal.       scraps. 

Lot  1 110  lbs.            64.5  32.1 

"    2 168    "              59.32  29.66 

•'    3 135    "                 4.57              4.57  6.86 

Average  weight  of  pigs. 

Lot  1     137  lbs.  Total  weight,  411  lbs. 

"2 153  "  "  "        459  " 

"    3 Ill  "  "  "         333  " 

Amount  of  fertilizing  material  in  food  consumed. 

Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.  Potash. 

Lot  1 4.698            2.29  .589 

"2 4.723            2.27  .624 

"3 1.34                .59  .322 

Amount  of  fertilizing  material  recovered. 

Lot  1  3.217  1.70  .534 

"2 3.481  1.45  -472 

"    3 1.330  .48  .323 

Excrements.  Value  of  excrements. 

1,000  lbs.  live  animal  1,000  lbs.  live  animal 
per  day.  per  day. 

Lot  1 108.9  lbs.  $0.2106 

"    2 75.8    "  .186 

•'    3 56.2    "  .104 


174  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Composition  of  pig  manure  (unpublished). 

Water,    Nitrogen,  Phos.  acid.  Potash, 

per  cent,    per  cent,  per  cent,    per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Lot  1 78.47            .88  .48              .29        $3.48 

"    2 74.58            .91  .40              .28          3.46 

"    3 69.34            .74  .30              .40          2.76 

It  is  seen  in  what  a  marked  degree  the  food  con- 
sumed effects  the  quality.  The  nitrogenous  pro- 
duced three -fold  more  excrements  than  the  carbon- 
aceous rations. 

TABLE    LI. 

Summary  of  computed  values  of  pig  manure. 

Excrements   Manure 
per  ton.       per  ton. 

New  York  Experiment  Station  (Geneva) $3. i9 

"        "  "  "  "  3.20 

Connecticut         "  "        2.95 

Cornell  "  "        $2.94 


3.41 
3.18 


"  "  "         3.48 

"  "  "         3.46 

"         2.94 

Average  of  manure 3.20 

"        "excrements 3.18 

ANALYSES  OF  THE  EXCREMENT  OP  FOWLS. 

TABLE   LII. 

Composition  of  fresh  hen  manure. 

(Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  1801, 1892,  unpublished.) 

Mixed  ration,  fed  equal  parts  corn  and  oats. 

Per  cent.    Per  ton. 

Water 46.84 

Nitrogen 1.38        $4.14 

Phosphoric  acid 50  .70 

Potash 41  .37 

$5.21 


Hen   Manure.  175 

Carbonaceous  ration,  of  nothing  but  corn. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 26.74 

Nitrogen 1.10  $3.30 

Phosphoric  acid 24  .34 

Potash .27  .24 

$3.88 

Nitrogenous  ration,  two  parts  wheat  to  one  cracked  peas. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water : 24.43 

Nitrogen 1.10  $3.30 

Phosphoric  acid 47  .66 

Potash 29  .26 

$4.22 

Mixed  ration,*  equal  parts  corn  and  oats. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 39.67 

Nitrogen 748  $2.24 

Phosphoric  acid 22  .31 

Potash 23  .22 

$2.77 

TABLE   LIII. 

Hen  manure,  sun  dried. 
(Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1892,  unpublished.) 

Per  cent.        Per  ton. 

Water 4.25 

Nitrogen 2.  $6.00 

Phosphoric  acid 85  .6oi 

Potash 35  .31 

$6.94 
•Piaster  2  lbs.  to  1  lb.  of  manure  added  to  prevent  loss  of  nitrogen. 


176  The   Fertility    of  the   Land. 

TABLE   LIV. 

Fresh  hen  manure. 
(Bull.  8i,  New  Jersey  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 55. 

Nitrogen 1.09  at  15  cents,  $3.27 

Phosphoric  acid 92"     7      "        1.29 

Potash 45"    4.5"  .40 

$4.96 

TABLE    LV. 

Manure  of  fowls ,  fresh . 
(8th  Annual  Report  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.) 
Pen  6.  Percent.  Per  ton. 

Water 59.7 

Nitrogen 1.40  at  15  cents,  $4.20 

Phosphoric  acid 92"     7      "        1.28 

Potash 32"    4.5    "  .28 

$5.76 

Pen  7.  Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 55.3 

Nitrogen 1.14  at  15  cents,  $3.42 

Phosphoric  acid 72"     7     "        1.00 

Potash 25  "     4.5  "  .22 

$4.64 

Pen  6,  average  value  per  fowl,  14  cents  per  year. 
"    7,       "  "        "       "      10     "       "       " 

TABLE    LVI. 

Hen  manure,  air-dried. 

(Same  as  above.) 

Nitrogenous  ration. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 7.44 

Nitrogen 1.82  at  15    cents,  $5.46 

Phosphoric  acid 2.21   "    7       "        3.09 

Potash 1.11"    4.5    "        1.00 

$9.55 


Analyses   of  Hen   Manure.  177 

Carbonaceous  ration. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 7.13 

Nitrogen 1.53  at  15    cents,  $4.59 

Phosphoric  acid 1.92"    7        "        2.68 

Potash 1.01"    4.5     "  .90 

$8.17 

TABLE    LVII. 

Another  analysis  of  hen  manure,  fresh. 
(7th  Annual  Report  Muss.   Exp.  Sta.) 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Water 45.73 

Nitrogen 79  at  15    cents,  $2.37 

Phosphoric  acid 47"    7         "  .65 

Potash   18"    4.5     "  .16 

$3.18 
A  ir-dried. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 8.35 

Nitrogen 2.13  at  15    cents,  $6.39 

Phosphoric  acid 2.02"    7         "        2.82 

Potash 94"    4.5      "  .84 

$10.05 

TABLK    LVIII. 

Another  Massachusetts  analysis  of  hen  manure,  fresh. 

(Bull.  37,  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 58.98 

Nitrogen 1 .20  at  15  cents,  $3.60 

Phosphoric  acid 1.       "     7       "        1.40 

Potash 32"     4.5"  .28 

$5.28 
M 


178 


The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 


TABLE    LIX. 

Fresh  hen  manure. 
(Report  1890,  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.,  page  88.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Water 34.87 

Nitrogen 56  at  15  cents,  $1 .68 

Pbosphoric  acid 35  "  7      "         .49 

Potash 36"  4.5"  .32 

$2.49 

The  following  averages  of  value  and  water  content 
in  hen  manure  are  made  from  the  above  tables  : 

TABLE   LX. 

Water,  Per  ton. 
per  cent. 

Fresh  manure 55.  $4.96 

pen  6  (N.  Y.  State  Sta.) 59.7  5.76 

"    7      "           "          "     55.3  4.64 

(Mass.,  2) 52.35  4.23 

"             "               "       34.87  2.49* 

"             "         (Cornell,  4) 34.42  4.02 

Average 48.61  $4.35 

Water,  Per  ton. 

per  cent. 

Nitrogenous  ration,  air-dried  (N.  Y.  State  Sta. ) . .  7.44  $9.55 

Carbonaceous  ration,     "              "        "        "      ..   7.13  8.17 

Massachusetts,               "         8.35  10.05 

Cornell,                            "         4.25  6.94 

Average 6.79  $8.68 

TABLE    LXI. 

Pigeon  manure. 

(Storer,  Agriculture,  i,  p.  369.) 

Excrement  imported  into  England  from  Egypt. 

Per  cent.       Per  ton. 

Water 6.75 

Nitrogen 6.5  $19.50 

Phosphoric  acid 8.  11.20 

Potash 50  .45 

$30.15 

'Sample  contained  about  10  per  cent  of  earth. 


Pigeon,  Hen   and    Cattle   Manure.  179 

Wein  found  in  excrement  taken  from  church  steeple. 

Per  cent.    Per  ton. 

Water 11. 

Nitrogen 2.25        $6.75 

Phosphoric  acid 2.  2.80 

Potash  5.5  4.95 

$14.50 

TABLE    LXII. 

Analysis  of  pigeon  excrements  produced  in  the   United  States. 
(Handbook  of  Experiment  Station  Work.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Moisture  10. 

Nitrogen 3.20  $9.60 

Phosphoric  acid 1.90  2.66 

Potash  1.  .90 

$13.16 

Fresh  hen  manure  appears  to  be  worth  nearly 
twice  as  much  as  cattle  manure.  This  is  due  in  a 
large  measure  to  less  moisture  content;  while  the  lat- 
ter has  74  per  cent,  the  former  contains  but  51.59 
per  cent  of  moisture,  on  an  average.  Computed  at  the 
same  moisture  content,  the  hen  manure  would  be 
worth  $2.35  per  ton,  against  $2.46  for  the  cattle 
manure   (page  153). 

Usually  hen  houses  are  kept  clean  by  sprinkling 
chaff,  dust  or  gypsum  on  the  floors  and  roosts.  In 
such  cases  it  may  easily  happen  that  the  litter  may 
be  so  abundant  that  the  value  of  the  manure  is  re- 
duced to  nearly  that  of  cattle  manure.  On  the 
other  hand,  unmixed  hen  manure,  air-dried,  may  be 
worth  four  times  as  much  as  an  equal  weight  of 
cattle  manure.  Such  concentrated  manures  may  be, 
and  usually  are,  worth  more  per  unit  of  fertilizing 
material     than     unconcentrated    ones,     if     judiciously 


180  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

used,  since  the  value  of  manures  and  fertilizers  is 
dependent,  in  part,  on  their  immediate  availability, 
especially  of  their  nitrogenous  compounds.  If  the 
nitrogen  in  manures  is  available  only  in  the  ad- 
vanced stages  of  the  plant's  growth,  and  is  present 
in  abundance,  it  may  produce  a  positive  injury, 
while  if  available  in  the  early  stages,  it  is  likely  to 
be  very  beneficial.  Since  hen  manure,  especially  that 
which  is  unmixed  with  litter,  and  is  air -dried,  con- 
tains a  high  percentage  of  readily  available  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  these  compounds  are  of  more  value 
per  unit  than  are  those  contained  in  the  slower- 
acting  cattle  manure.  It  may  be  concluded  that  high- 
grade,  quickly  available  manures  and  fertilizers  are 
more  valuable,  unit  for  unit  of  plant-food,  than 
those  which  are  slowly  available,  provided,  always, 
that  they  are  used  with  judgment. 

MISCELLANEOUS    STATISTICS    OF    ANIMAL    MANURES. 

The  following  tables  were  condensed  and  compiled 
by  A.  Hebert  from  the  experiments  conducted  by 
Andoynaud  and  Zacharewicz,  and  Miintz  and  Girard. 
(Contribution  a  1' etude  du  Fermier  de  Ferme. — Ann. 
Agron.,  II.,  (1885),  pp.  129,  337.  Reported  in  Ex- 
periment Station  Record,  v.,  page  142.) 

TABLE    I. XIII. 

Nitrogen,  Phos.  acid,  Potash,    Value 
percent,   percent,    per  cent,  per  ton. 

Horse  urine 1.52  .9  $5.37 

Horse  solid  excrement 55         .35  .1  2.23 

Cow  urine 1.05  1.36  4.37 

Cow  solid  excrement 43  .12  .04  1.49 


Bat   and   Barnyard   Manure.  181 

Amount  of  fertilizing  material,  solids  and  liquids,  voided  per  animal 

daily. 

Nitrogen.      Phos.  acid.  Potash.  Value. 

Horses   342  lbs.        .131  lbs.        .112  lbs.        $0,065 

Cows 467    "  .071    "  .294    "  .088 

TABLE  LXIV. 

Daily  amounts  of  sheep  and  pig  manure. 

Value 
Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.  Potash,    per  ton. 

cv>         /Ttr«   *        An-      a\-51%>         -31  *         -87  %         $2"4 
Sheep  (Mttnts  and  Girard)    ^  ^      Qu  ^      039  ^ 

Pigs  (Boussingault) 0326"      .0246"      .50*    "        1.50 

TABLE   LXV. 

Summary  of  above  tables  calculated  per  year  in  pounds. 

Nitrogen.  Phos.  acid.          Potash.  Per  year. 

Horse 125.22  lbs.  47.83  lbs.        43.21  lbs.  $24.06 

Cow 170.63    "  26.01    "  107.58    "  32.25 

Sheep 8.40    "             5.6      "          14.33    "  2.29 

Pig 11.90  "  10.58  "    11.90  "  3.06 

TABLE    LXVI. 

Bat  manure. 
Nine  analyses  from  various  stations  give  the  following  average. 

Percent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 8.5  $25.50 

Phosphoric  acid 5.95  8.33 

Potash 1.14  1.02 

$34.85 

TABLE    LXVI  I. 

Barnyard  manure. 
(Bull.  9,  Mass.  Hatch.  1890.     No  particulars  given.) 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 70. 16 

Nitrogen 486 

Phosphoric  acid 553 

Potash 614 

'Estimated. 


182  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Lbs.  in  a  ton. 

Nitrogen 9.72  at  15    cents,  $1.46 

Phosphoric  acid 11.06"    7        "  .77 

Potash 12.28"    4.5     "  .55 

$2.78 

TABLE    LXVII1. 

Barnyard  manures  —  another  account. 
(Bull.  14,  Mass.  Hatch,  1891.) 

Per  cent.  Per  ton 

Moisture 67.28 

Nitrogen    388  at  15    cents,  $1 .  16 

Phosphoric  acid 289"    7  "  .40 

Potash 387"    4.5  "  .34 

$1.90 

TABLE    LXIX. 

Farmyard  manure  (Voelcker). 

Fresh,  Rotted,                         Fresh,  Rotted, 

per  cent,  per  cent.                     per  ton.  per  ton. 

Nitrogen 149        .297  at  15    cents,  $0.45  $0.89 

Phosphoric  acid 299         .382"    7        "           .42  .53 

Potash 573         .446"    4.5     "           .52  .40 

$1.39        $1.82 

TABLE     LXX. 

Mixed  farmyard  manures  (D.  Anderson,  Scotland). 

Per  cent.  Per  ton. 

Nitrogen 38  at  15   cents,  $1.14 

Phosphoric  acid 31  "    7       "  .43 

Potash 32"    4.5    "  .29 

$1.86 

TABLE    LXXI. 

F.  J.  Lloyd  estimates  from  various  data  that  an  average 
ton  of  farmyard  manure  would  contain  — 

Nitrogen 12  lbs.  at  15    cents,  $1.80 

Phosphoric  acid 5    "      "7       "  .35 

Potash 11    "      "    4.5    "  .49 

$2.64 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE    WASTE    OF   MANURES. 


Fig.  29.     Baptism  of  farm  manures.     From  a  photograph  taken  in  Minnesota. 


Fig.  30.    A  typical    old-time  farmyard.       From  a  recent   photograph   taken  in 
central  New  York. 

(183) 


'  •  -  *  .  Jf-    .^    ,«:*  •  — >* 


Fig.  82.    Showing  the  effective  means  which  the  farmer  employs  to  advertise  hi* 
shiftlessness  and  his  lack  of  appreciation  of  home  resources. 


Fit.  34.     A    Japanese  student's    conception     of   the   wasting  of    farm   manure*. 
Adapted  from  a  sketch  on  an  examination  paper  at  the  Cornell  University. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE    CARE,    PRESERVATION   AND    APPLICATION 
OF  MANURES. 

The  amounts  of  manures  and  excrements  which 
various  species  of  animals  produce,  and  also  their 
percentage  composition,  have  already  been  shown.  It 
is  impossible  to  set  forth  their  true  value.  Not- 
withstanding this,  it  is  certainly  known  that  they  are 
of  enough  value  to  justify  painstaking  effort  to  learn 
how  best  to  husband  them  until  used,  the  most  ap- 
propriate time  to  apply  them,  and  the  crop  likely  to 
receive  the  greatest  benefit  from  them. 

LOSS    IN    MANURES    DUE    TO   WEATHERING   AND 
EXPOSURE. 

If  manures  are  sheltered,  no  loss  is  sustained  from 
leaching  by  the  passage  of  rain  water  through  them, 
but  loss  may  come  from  other  causes.  Manures  ex- 
posed for  a  time  may  not  suffer  deterioration  from 
the  rain  which  falls  upon  them,  but  rather  be  bene- 
fited, as  in  the  case  of  horse  manure,  which  tends  to 
heat  rapidly  if  not  kept  moist.  When  a  superabun- 
dance of  water  from  the  eaves  of  the  barn  falls  upon 
it,  or  the  layer  or  pile  of  manure  is  shallow,  a  single 

(188) 


Covered    Barnyards.  189 

heavy  shower  may  cause  leaching.  The  only  safe 
method  is  to  control  the  conditions,  in  order  that  the 
minimum  of  loss  is  sustained.  Whenever  an  abun- 
dance of  straw  or  other  coarse  bedding  material  is  at 
hand,  and  when  the  horns  are  removed  from  the  cattle 
or  are  prevented  from  growing,  covered  yards  are 
found  to  be  entirely  satisfactory.  In  these  the  stock 
may  take  mild  exercise  and  be  watered,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  tramp  the  manure,  and  prevent  its  too 
rapid  heating.  If  gypsum  is  distributed  occasionally 
over  the  surface,  the  conditions  of  both  the  yard  and 
the  manure  will    be  benefited. 

A  yard  forty  by  sixty  feet  suffices  for  twenty  to 
twenty -five  full-grown  cows.  Covered  barnyards  give 
opportunity  to  control  conditions,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  loss  from  scattering  the  manure,  from  tramping 
it  into  the  mud,  from  leaching,  from  too  rapid  de- 
composition, and  from  escape  of  the  liquid  manure; 
while  they  furnish  a  most  comfortable  place  for  the 
animals  to  stretch  their  limbs  while  their  stables  are 
being  aired,  to  quench  their  thirst  in  a  comfortable 
atmosphere,  with  water  brought  to  a  temperature,  in 
winter,  of  98°  Fahrenheit;  and  they  give  opportunity 
for  removing  the  manure  when  most  convenient  and 
when  the  roads  and  fields  are  in  suitable  condition. 
Then,  too,  the  manure  is  removed  without  handling 
as  much  rain  water  as  manure,  thereby  preventing 
the  thoughtless  farmer  from  making  a  useless  effort 
to  irrigate  his  fields  by  the  aid  of  a  manure -fork. 

Manure  platforms  or  shallow,  uncovered,  cemented 
pits   are    sometimes    built    near    the  stables,  in    which 


190  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

all  manures  are  stored  until  wanted.  Usually  the 
liquid  manures,  augmented  by  the  rain,  make  cisterns 
necessary  for  their  storage,  or  the  pit  will  overflow. 
Unless  absorbents  are  present  in  liberal  amounts,  the 
water  added  by  exposure  is  of  no  benefit,  while  it 
most  unnecessarily  increases  the  cost  of  removing 
the  manures. 

Distributing  liquid  manure,  mixed  or  unmixed  with 
rain  water,  by  the  means  of  water-tight  tanks  and 
sprinkling  attachments,  is  seldom  found  to  be  satisfac- 
tory, and  should  be  avoided  if  sufficient  absorbents 
can  be  secured  to  change  the  mass  to  a  semi -solid 
state,  suitable  for  handling  with  a  shovel.  The  free 
use  of  bedding  not  only  absorbs  the  liquid  voidings, 
but  tends  to  promote  cleanliness  in  the  stable,  and  the 
comfort  of  the  animals.  Whatever  method  is  adopted, 
three  things  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind:  comfort 
and  health  of  the  animals,  conservation  of  the  ma- 
nures, and  economy  of  labor  in  removing  them  to 
and  from  their  temporary  storage  place.  In  many 
cases  fully  a  third  of  the  value  of  the  manures  is  ex- 
pended on  them  between  the  stable  and  the  field. 

The  practice  of  removing  manures  from  the  stable 
directly  to  the  field  is  a  good  one  whenever  it  can  be 
carried  out.  Unfortunately  there  are  times  when  the 
fields  are  over -moist,  the  lanes  impassable,  time  lack- 
ing, and  no  suitable  place  ready  to  spread  the  manure, 
and  for  such  emergencies  some  storage  receptacle, 
even  though  a  small  one,  should  be  provided.  The 
open  manure  barnyard  is  destined  to  pass  away,  and 
needs  only  a  few  vigorous  kicks  to  hasten  its  departure. 


Leaching   of  Manures.  191 

Manure,  if  placed  in  deep  piles  and  cared  for,  may 
be  improved  by  partial  rotting  without  sustaining 
much  loss.  Frequently  the  loss  is  fully  balanced  by 
the  increased  percentage  of  available  plant -food  and 
oy  the  improved  texture  of  the  manure. 

The  need  of  caring  for  manures  is  emphasized  by 
the  following  tables,  which  give  the  results  of  in- 
vestigations conducted  in  1889  at  the  Cornell  Ex- 
periment Station  (Bulletin  XIII.).  The  values  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  have  been  com- 
puted to  correspond  with  those  in  previous  chap- 
ters. The  following  is  one  day's  product  of  nine 
horses : 

Total  weight  of  excrements,  solid  and  liquid 491.    lbs. 

Weight  of  straw  bedding .'58.5    " 

Total 529.5    " 

This  material  was  lightly  packed  in  a  wooden  box, 
not  water-tight,  surrounded  with  manure,  and  left 
exposed  from  March  30  to  September  30.  At  the 
end  of  six  months  it  was  found  to  have  sustained 
the    following    losses: 

A  ton  of  this  manure,  computed  as  in  previous 
tables,  was  worth  $2.30  per  ton  when  fresh;  after  six 
months'  exposure,  $1.32.  Loss,  $0.98  per  ton,  or  42.6 
per  cent. 

In  1890,  4,000  pounds  of  manure  from  the  horse 
stables,  composed  of  3.31!)  pounds  of  excrements 
and  681  pounds  of  straw,  were  placed  out  of  doors 
in  a  compact  pile  and  left  exposed  from  April  25 
to    September  22,  at  the  end  of    which    time  the  total 


192  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

weight  had   decreased  to  1,730   pounds.     The  tabular 
results   were   as   follows: 

April  25,      Sept.  22.     Loss, 
lbs.  lbs.     per  cent. 

Gross  weight 4,000  1,730  57 

Nitrogen 19.60  7.79  60 

Phosphoric  acid 14.80  7.79  47 

Potash 36  8.65  76 

Per  ton $2.80         |1.06» 

Five  tons  of  cow  manure,  composed  of  9,278 
pounds  of  excrements  mixed  with  422  pounds  ol 
wheat  straw,  were  exposed  in  a  compact  pile  for  the 
same  period  as  the  horse  manure  was,  and  under 
similar  conditions,  except  that  300  pounds  of  gypsum 
were  mixed   with  it.       The  outcome  was   as   follows: 

Lbs.  Lbs.        Loss, 

at  beginning,  at  end.  per  cent. 

Gross  weight 10,000        5.125         49 

Nitrogen 47  28         41 

Phosphoric  acid 32  26         19 

Potash 48  44  8 

Per  ton $2.29         $1.60* 

Manures  may  lose  a  large  percentage  of  their 
valuable  constituents  and  yet  be  worth  more  per 
ton  than  they  were  before  the  loss  occurred.  Con- 
sider, for  instance,  the  five  tons  of  cow  manure 
which  contained  at  the  beginning  47  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, or  9.4  pounds  per  ton,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
investigation     28     pounds,    and     note    that     this    28 

•Value  on   September  22   of    an   amount  of   manure  which   weighed  2,000 
lbs.  on  April  25. 


Exposure    of  Manures    and    Rainfall.  193 

pounds  was  contained  in  2..~>6  tons,  instead  of  in 
the  original  5  tons.  While  the  total  loss  of  nitro- 
gen was  41  per  cent  in  the  exposed  manure,  the  sam- 
ple contained  10.9  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  ton,  or 
1.5   pounds   per   ton   more  than   the  fresh   manure. 

The  following  table  gives  in  brief  the  results  of 
many  experiments  at  Cornell  in  exposing  manures 
during  two  years: 

TABLK    I. XXII. 

Per  ton  Loss,        Loss, 

at  beginning,  per  ton.  per  cent. 

1889,  horse  manure  in  loose  pile $2.30        $1.32        42.0 

1890. 2.8(1  1.74        62. 

1890,  cow 2.29  .69        30. 

1889,  mixed  manure  compacted  in  box     2.24  .23  8.7 

The  rainfall  in  1890  was  unusually  abundant,  as 
is  shown  by  the  following  table  : 

TABLE    LXXIII. 

Jfaivfall  during  the  progress  of  the  experiment. 

Ave.  for  Excess  +  ; 

1890,  12  years,  deficiency—; 

Month.  inches.  inches,  inches. 

April 3.34  2.  +1.34 

May 6.60  3.69  -j-2.91 

June 4.91  3.73  -j-1.21 

July 1.24  3.92  -2.68 

August  4.92  3.18  +1.74 

September 6.62  2.79  -f-3-83 

Total 27.66         19.31         +8.35 

From   Oetober    1,    1884,    to   March   2,   1885,    191% 

tons  of    mixed  manure    from  horses,  cattle    and  sheep 

accumulated     in     the     covered     barnyard     at     Cornell 

University.      This     manure     was     the     product     of     12 

N 


194  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

spring  calves,  7  winter  calves,  24  cows,  1  bull,  12 
horses  and  1  colt  for  the  five  months.  It  was 
well  compacted  by  the  tramping  of  the  cattle,  which 
were  kept  for  the  greater  part  of  each  .day  in  the 
covered  yard.  A  large  number  of  samples  of  about 
ten  pounds  each  was  taken  from  the  undisturbed 
mass  by  cutting  out  solid  cubes.  These  were  put 
together,  chopped,  mixed,  divided  and  subdivided, 
and  a  sample  was  taken  for  analysis.  A  similar 
determination  had  been  made  in  1883-4.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  results,  in  separate  columns,  of 
the  two  years'  determinations: 

TABLE    LXXIV. 

1884-5,  1883-4, 

per  cent,  per  cent. 

Moisture  75.57  72.95 

Nitrogen G8  .78 

Phosphoric  acid 29  .40 

Potash 70  .84 

In  1895,  an  investigation  was  made  at  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  to  determine  the  accuracy  of 
sampling  manures.  Seventy-six  loads  of  manure, 
which  had  accumulated  in  a  covered  barnyard  from 
July  to  October,  were  sampled  as  the  manure  was 
removed,  by  placing  every  thirtieth  forkful  in  one 
of  three  boxes, —  the  first  forkful  in  box  No.  1, 
the  next  in  No.  2,  and  the  next  in  No.  3.  When 
the  work  was  completed  the  sample  boxes  contained 
about  one  ton  each.  Each  of  these  large  samples 
was  separately  mixed  and  roughly  fined  and  divided 
into  two  equal  parts,  one  of  which  was  saved,  the 
other  discarded.      TJie  sample  saved  was  again  mixed 


Variation   in    Weight   of  Animals.  195 

and  fined,  and  divided  as  before.  As  the  samples 
became  smaller  by  discarding  one -half,  more  and 
more  pains  was  taken  to  chop  and  fine  the  material 
by  means  of  sharpened  spades  and  axes.  When  the 
original  samples  were  reduced  to  about  one  bushel 
each,  the  final  samples  were  taken  for  analysis.  The 
following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  samples: 

TABLE    LXXV. 

Box  1,  Box  2,  Box  I!, 

per  cent,  per  cent,  per  cent. 

Moisture 63.34  62.85  64.02 

Nitrogen 87  .86  1.01 

•    Phosphoric  acid 59  .60  .5,'! 

Potash 15  .14  .14 

Studies  were  undertaken  by  Miintz  and  Girard 
from  1883  to  1887,*  to  determine  the  loss  or  differ- 
ence of  nitrogen  between  the  amounts  of  food  con- 
sumed by  various  classes  of  animals  and  the  amounts 
recovered  in  manure,  when  the  excrements  were 
fresh,  and  when  left  in  the  stables  for  different 
periods  of  time.  Their  figures  (which  are  given  in 
Table  LXXVI.)  do  not  represent  the  true  losses  due 
to  exposure,  as  no  account  was  taken  of  the  loss  or 
gain  in  weight  of  the  animals.  Even  if  the  animals 
had  been  weighed  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
experiment,  little  would  have  been  gained,  since  the 
weight  of  animals  varies  widely  from  day  to  day. 
The  amount  of  water  drunk  by  a  mature  cow  in  milk 
may  vary  from  a  few  to  seventy- five  pounds  daily. 
Steers  fattened  on  air-dried  corn  and  hay  add  from  ."> 

'Experiment  Station  Hecord,  v.  \h\,  quoted  from  "Les  Engraiv" 


196  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

to  15  per  cent  of  water  to  the  dressed  carcass  in  a 
few  weeks  when  turned  on  succulent  pastures,  and 
vet  may  gain  little  or  nothing  in  live  weight.  Ani- 
mals producing  young,  wool  or  milk  use  more  or 
less  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds  in  their  food  in 
addition  to  those  required  for  maintenance,  and  hence 
could  not  return  in  their  excrements  all  of  the  poten- 
tial nitrogen  contained  in  their  rations. 

TABLE    LXXVI. 

Losses  in  manure  exposed  to  air. 
Manure  from  sheep. 

Fresh,     After  6  months,  Loss, 

ll.s.  lbs.  lbs. 

Weight  of  manure 15,784.93  9,281 .30 

Dry  matter 5,160.96  3,869.07  1,291.89 

Total  nitrogen 96.34  85.31  11.02 

"     phosphoric  acid 97.88  79.14  18.74 

•'     potash 269.84  211.64  58.20 

Manure  from  cows. 

Weight 11,748.31  7,209.04 

Dry  matter 5,156.56  3,315.72  1,840.84 

Total  nitrogen 95.02  72.09  22.93 

"      phosphoric  acid 46.95  43.65  3.3 

"      potash 170.40  144.18  26.22 

In  the  preceding  tables,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  nitrogen  and  potash  are  lost  in  much  larger  pro- 
portions than  the  phosphoric  acid  is.  Dry  earth 
would  largely  prevent  the  loss  of  both  nitrogen  and 
potash.  It  has  been  assumed  by  good  authorities  that, 
on  an  average,  fattening  animals  return  in  their  ex- 
crements 90  per  cent,  cows  in  milk  and  half -mature 
growing  animals  70  per  cent,  young  calves  fed  on 
milk    and    other    easily   digested   foods    10  to-  20   per 


W<is{e   of  Xiirogen.  197 

cent,  and  animals  not  increasing  in  weight  or  fur- 
nishing a  surplus  product  nearly  100  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen,  phophoric  acid  and  potash  of  their  food. 
It  is  seen  how  difficult  it  is  to  determine  the  losses 
due  to  exposure  of  manures  by  noting  the  difference 
between  the  amounts  of  constituents  fed  and  the 
amounts    recovered. 

The  foods  fed  to  certain  animals  were  analyzed, 
and  also  the  resulting  manure,  the  loss  of  nitrogen 
being  found  by  differences  in  some  cases;  in  others, 
the  actual  loss  of  the  manure  after  it  was  pro- 
duced was  determined.  In  horse  stalls,  where  the 
solids  were  taken  up  as  soon  as  dropped,  and  the 
urine  absorbed  by  straw  on  cement  floors  and  taken 
up  daily,  71.3  percent  of  the  nitrogen  was  recovered. 
In  cow  stables,  where  the  excrements  wrere  removed 
daily,  72.8  per  cent  was  recovered ;  when  removed 
twice  a  week,  G7.G4  per  cent.  In  sheep-pens  bedded 
with  clean  straw,  and  the  manure  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate during  the  period  of  the  experiment,  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  were  recovered: 

TABLE    I. XXVII. 

/yi/.s-.sr.s-    in   slui/j  \>ih    manure. 

N'itrogeu 

Period  of  recovered, 

experiment,  percent. 

June  l.V-July  7 23  days  49.8 

.luly  8-       ••     :tl 2:i     ••  44.7 

Jan.  19-Feb.  9 21     "  54.1 

KVb.  9-Mar.  2 21     "  56.2 

Mar.  20- Apr.  10 21     "  55.7 

A  pile  of  fresh  horse  manure,  composed  of  491 
pounds    of     solid     and    liquid     excrements    and    38.5 


198  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

pounds  of  bedding  (total  529.5  pounds),  was  placed 
in  a  wooden  box,  not  water-tight,  and  surrounded 
with  manure  of  a  similar  character.  The  following 
table  gives  the  composition  of  the  manure  when 
fresh   and   after   it   was    exposed    six    months: 

TABLE    LXXVIII. 

(Bull.  13,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.,  1889.) 

After  6  months' 
Fresh,    exposure, 
per  cent,    per  cent. 

Moisture 70.79        81.74 

Nitrogen 51  .4(1 

Phosphoric  a^id 21  .15 

Potash 53  .31 

Total  weight  of  manure 529.5  lbs.  372  lbs. 

Value  of  one  ton  fresh  manure $2.30 

"      "  the  same  after  6  months'  exposure 1.32 

Loss 42  per  cent. 

A  block  of  undisturbed  manure  owe  foot  deep, 
of  cattle  and  horse  excrements  mixed  with  straw 
bedding,  kept  under  cover  and  packed  solidly  by  the 
tramping  of  cattle  as  it  was  thrown  from  the  Cor- 
nell stables,  was  placed  in  a  close-fitting  galvanized 
iron  pan  with  a  perforated  bottom,  and  left  out 
of  doors  from  March  31  to  September  30.  The  fol- 
lowing  table   shows   the   loss   which   took    place: 

TABLE    l.XX'IX. 

Loss,  per  cent. 

Nitrogen 3.2 

Phosphoric  acid 4.7 

Potash 35 

Computed  value  of  one  ton  before  exposure $2.21 

Value  of  the  same  ton  after  exposure 2.01 

Loss  per  ton 9.05  per  cent 


Experiments   at   New    York   State    Station.      199 

The  compacted  manure  shows  a  far  less  loss  by 
exposure   than    the    losely  piled   manure    does. 

Sheldon  comes  to  the  following  conclusions,  after 
conducting  experiments  similar  to  these  at  the  Kan- 
sas Experiment  Station:  "The  moral  which  the  ex- 
periments plainly  emphasize  is,  that  farmyard  ma- 
nures must  be  hauled  to  the  held  in  the  spring; 
otherwise  the  loss  of  manure  is  sure  to  be  very 
great,  the  waste  in  the  course  of  six  months  amount- 
ing to  fully  one -half  the  gross  manure,  and  nearly 
40  per  cent  of    the  nitrogen  that    it  contained." 

The  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  has 
made  somewhat  extended  experiments  in  the  loss  of 
manures,  the  results  of  which  are  here  briefly  sum- 
marized: 

A  pile  of  cow  manure  weighing  3,298  pounds 
lost  in  weight  in  one  year  65.19  per  cent,  and  in 
bulk    50    per   cent. 

An  old  compost  heap,  of  which  muck  was  the 
leading  ingredient,  was  simultaneously  exposed  for 
the  same  length  of  time,  and  lost  29.45  per  cent 
in   weight,  and    28.6    per   cent   in    bulk. 

The  manure  lost  46.6  per  cent  of  its  manurial 
constituents,  and  the  muck  21.45  per  cent  of  its 
nitrogen,  and  almost  nothing  of  its  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid. 

The  writer  of  Bulletin  23,  September,  1890,  says 
(p.  325):  "Great  losses  of  nitrogen  from  manures  are 
usually  associated  with  drying  and  burning  out,  hence 
we  must  consider  these  results  to  be  under  rather 
than    over  what    may    be    expected    in  average   years." 


200  The    Fertility    of  the    Land. 

At  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  a  min- 
iature pile  of  manure  exposed  for  three  weeks  showed 
a  loss  of  3.36  per  cent  of  ammonia,  which  is  equal 
to  2.77   per  cent  of   nitrogen.     (Bulletin   63,  p.  113.) 

Determinations  made  of  the  teachings  from  a 
manure  pile  by  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station 
showed  that  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  93  per 
cent  of  water,  the  teachings  were  worth  $2.9-1  per 
ton.     (Eleventh    Annual    Report,  1893,  p.  345.) 

Sheep  manure  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station, 
1893,  sun-dried  in  the  spring  for  forty-two  days  in 
ten -pound  lots,  showed  a  loss  when  unmixed  with 
gypsum  of  38.9  per  cent,  and  when  mixed  with  gyp- 
sum a  loss  of  26.3  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  (From 
unpublished  material.) 

A  field  test  of  the  value  of  housed  and  unhoused 
manures  was  made  from  1891  to  1893  in  Utah,  which 
showed  that  the  plats  treated  with  housed  manures 
gave  an  increase  in  grain  of  6.64  per  cent  over 
those  treated  with  unhoused  manures.  (Utah  Ex- 
periment  Station,  Fourth  Annual    Report,  p.   160.) 

The  experiments  of  J.  R.  Schiffer  (Zeitsch.  d. 
landw.  Ver.  f.  Rheinpreussen,  1892,  pp.  43.  44),  made 
with  barnyard  manure  preserved  by  the  use  of  super- 
phosphate (gypsum,)  and  unpreserved  manure,  gave 
the  following   results: 

Potatoes,  bus.  Barley,  bus. 

Preserved  manure 247  42. 1 

Unpreserved  manure 2.'i'J  34.5 

Difference 15  7.6 

Potatoes  upon   which   the  treated    manure   was  used 


Box    Stalls   Conserve   Manures.  201 

averaged  21.6  per  cent  of  starch,  and  those  where 
the  other  was  used  averaged  17.1)  per  cent.  The 
author  calculates  a  net  increase  from  the  use  of  pre- 
served manure  over  the  unpreserved  of  about  $35  per 
acre  in  the  trial  with  potatoes.  These  results  are  for 
the  first  year  after  the  application  of  the  manure. 
In  the  last  experiment,  no  account  appears  to  have 
been  taken  of  the  fertilizing  material  contained  in 
the  superphosphate;  and  while  the  material  used  for 
preserving  the  manure  without  doubt  conserved  the 
nitrogen,  yet  it  is  barely  possible  that  the  increased 
yield,  dm4  to  the  preserved  manure,  was  the  result 
in  part  of  the  phosphate,  and  not  wholly  attributa- 
ble to  the  nitrogen   which  was  conserved. 

The  system  of  feeding  animals  in  box  stalls, 
allowing  the  manure  to  accumulate,  tends  to  conserve 
the  valuable  constituents.  An  analysis  by  Biernatzki 
shows  the  difference  between  manure  preserved  after 
this  plan  and  by  the  common  heap  method  to  be  as 
follows: 

Tntai  l'lios. 

Moisture,     nitrogen,      acid.        Potash, 
percent,     percent,     percent,  percent. 

Heap  method K5.78  .47  .20  .4.'< 

Improved  method 76.5-1  .f>7  .31  -76 

COVKKK!)      MANURE      VARDS. 

At  many  a  farmstead  conditions  are  found  which 
at  first  glance  appear  to  have  been  brought  about 
by  a  well -laid  plan  persistently  carried  out  for  wast- 
ing manures,   thereby  obviating   the  labor  and  expense 


202  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

of  removing  them  to  the  fields.  The  manures  are 
thrown  out  of  windows  under  the  great  eaves  of  the 
wide -extending  roof,  or  out  of  the  stable  door,  where, 
during  a  portion  or  all  of  the  rainy  months,  they 
are  leached  into  the  streams  and  the  fine  particles 
washed  over  large  areas  or  partially  burned  by  self- 
generated  heat,  and  robbed  of  the  larger  portion  of 
their  potential  nitrogen.  Washed  by  the  rains,  dried 
by  the  winds,  burned  by  slow  combustion,  rooted 
over  by  swine,  punched  into  the  mud  by  the  hoofs  of 
animals,  and  scratched  into  the  fence  corners  by  the 
ever -industrious  dung- hill  fowls,  is  it  any  wonder 
that  this  mixture  of  mud,  water  and  leached  manure 
is  described  as  the  "attenuated  corpse  from  which 
the  spirit  has  long  since  departed"? 

Many  barnyards  contain  not  less  than  one -fourth 
of  an  acre  (100x110  feet),  upon  which  falls  annually, 
in  central  New  York  (where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
32  inches),  1,812,800  pounds,  or  900  tons,  of  water. 
In  addition  to  this,  from  the  eaves  of  most  barns 
come  floods  of  water,  which  add  to  the  forces  of 
destruction  and  deterioration  already  present. 

The  following  illustrations  are  designed  to  show 
how  easily  the  manures  from  the  stables  may  be  pre- 
served from  waste  until  time  and  suitable  conditions 
in  the  fields  make  it  convenient  to  remove  them. 

Fig.  36  shows  how  easily  the  unsightly  conditions 
which  are  shown  in  Chapter  VIII.  can  be  avoided, 
and  how  the  losses  which  occur  from  the  methods 
there  shown  may  be  prevented. 

The   larger   and  more   convenient    manure    recepta- 


204                  The    Fertility  of  the    Land. 

cle     shown     in    Figs.     37,  38    and    39    is   easily   and 

cheaply     built,    and     well  adapted,     when     somewhat 

enlarged     in    breadth   and  height,   to    not   only   shel- 


48  ft. 


U«lilM^LJ...J.  WJ-WJHWJ}^lM»tl!...!.aWJ^MHJL    .'       .11  


Fig.  .'!7.     Plan  of  a  manure  shed. 

tering  the  manures,  but  the  straw  stack  as  well.  It 
also  provides  suitable  and  sheltered  quarters  for 
the  animals  while  being  watered,  and  a  place  in 
which  they  may  take  all  the  exercise  required  dur- 
ing the  colder  months  of  the  year  while  their 
quarters  are  being  aired  and  cleaned.  Here,  too, 
may  the  two  extremes  of  over  and  under-exercise 
be   avoided. 

To  turn  milch  cows  and  calves  out  from  warm 
stables  into  the  bleak,  piercing  winter  wind  for  even 
an  hour,  .  and  force  them  to  travel  to  some  distant 
stream  and  drink  ice-cold  water  or  do  without,  is 
not  only  cruel  but  unprofitable.  To  offer  the  excuse 
that  animals  need  exercise,  and,  therefore,  this  is  a 
good  way  of  compelling  them  to  take  it,  makes  the 
practice  none  the  less  reprehensible.  The  custom  of 
fastening  animals   in    uncomfortable  stanchions  in  the 


Cheap    Covered    Yards. 


205 


fall,  and  keeping  them  there  until  spring  on  hard 
imbedded  or  half-bedded  floors,  without  any  chance  to 
take  a  breath  of  fresh  air  or  to  stretch  their  limbs, 
is  a  practice  scarcely  less  reprehensible  than  the  other. 
The  better  system  would  appear  to  lie  between  these 
two  uncomfortable  methods.  If  no  suitable  basement, 
or  open  shed  which  could  be  inclosed,  is  at  hand,  a 
larger  or  smaller  structure  than  that  shown  in  the 
figures,  built  as  a  wing  to  the  barn  and  over  the 
great  barn  doors,  would  serve  most  admirably  in  lieu 
of    the  wasteful  and  cruel  open  barnyard. 

The  plans  are  modeled  after  a  large  horse-barn 
built  by  the  author  some  years  since.  Such  a  struc- 
ture is  not  only  inexpensive  but  durable,  and  may  be 
made  to  conserve  the  manures  of  the  farmstead  in 
a     most     economical     wav.        The     floor     mav     be    of 


^pz^z^p 


Fr*wf  ninii*nw"» 


— ii_^. ^^-±^-4 


Fig-  38.      Frame  striu-ture  of  the  manure  she<l. 


pounded  clay  or  of  grout.  The  round  posts,  set  six- 
feet  apart  and  about  two  feet  in  the  ground  to  give 
them  stability  while  erecting  the  structure,  are  of  any 
length    desired.     After    being    set    in    line,    much    the 


206 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


same  as  shorter  fence  posts  are,  two  tiers  of  girts 
2x4  are  spiked  to  their  outer  surfaces,  and  a  2x6, 
spiked  on  top  of  the  posts,  after  they  have  been 
sawed  off,  serves  for  plate  (Fig.  38).  The  outer 
boarding   is    put    on    vertically,    the    inner    boarding 


Pig.  DO.      Frame  structure  of  the  manure  shed. 

horizontally,  and  the  space  between  filled  tightly  with 
straw.  Good  shingles  should  be  used  to  cover  the 
building,  for  no  matter  how  inexpensive  a  structure 
may  be,  it  is  economy  to  keep  it  covered  with  a 
water-tight  roof.  When  the  posts  have  become  weak- 
ened by  decay,  they  may  be  sawed .  off  at  the  grouud 


Christian    Farmers    and    Comfort.  207 

and  flat  foundation  stones,  four  to  six  inches  thick 
and  eighteen  inches  square,  placed   under  them. 

If  the  structure  were  wider  than  that  shown,  it 
would  require  center  supporting  posts,  and  if  it  had 
two  stories,  the  upper  one  used  to  store  straw,  then 
the  building  should  be  tied  together  by  joists  placed 
two  feet  apart,  supported  by  a  summer  (a  timber 
under  center  of  joists)  and  by  center  posts  (Fig.  39). 
A  structure  of  this  character  will  be  much  drier 
than  one  built  of  stone  or  even  of  double -boarded 
paper -fortified  wooden  walls,  and  fully  as  warm  if 
the  roof  space  is  filled  with  straw,  and  far  cheaper. 

A  due  regard  for  the  comfort  and  productive 
power  of  the  animals,  the  fertility  of  the  land,  the 
economy  of  labor,  and  the  conscience  of  Christian 
farmers  makes  it  incumbent  upon  every  tiller  of  the 
soil  to  provide  comfortable  quarters  for  all  animals, 
and  ample  and  suitable  room  for  the  storage  of  all 
farm  products  until  wanted,  including  manures  and  all 
implements  and  tools,  that  the  farm  and  its  sur- 
roundings may  have  the  appearance  of  neatness  and 
thrift,  that  the  productive  power  of  the  land  may  be 
preserved  and  increased,  and  that  farming  may  be 
mad*1,  as  it  deserves  to  be,  the  most  delightful  of  all 
professions. 

THE     APPLICATION     OK     MANURES. 

In  a  country  varying  so  widely  as  ours  does  in 
climate,  in  the  crops  raised,  in  markets,  and  in  the 
intelligence,    wants    and    desires    of    the    people,    both 


208  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

urban  and  suburban,  practices  will  fit  themselves,  in 
time,  into  their  surroundings,  provided  a  few  of  the 
economical  and  scientific  principles  of  fertility  are 
clearly  understood. 

The  by-products  of  the  stable  and  farm  may  be 
applied  to  the  land  for  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing purposes:  as  a  winter  cover,  as  a  mulch,  to  im- 
prove physical  conditions,  to  increase  humus,  to  pro- 
mote nitrification,  and  to  supply  food  to  growing 
plants.  Moderately  rotted  manures  are  best  applied 
in  late  summer  and  early  fall,  on  the  surface,  and  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  plowed.  They  should  then 
be  incorporated  with  the  surface  soil  by  the  use  of 
the  harrow  or  cultivator,  preparatory  to  planting  to 
wheat,  rye  and  like  crops;  or  they  may  be  spread 
upon  the  meadows  and  pastures.  This  presupposes 
that  the  manures  of  the  previous  winter  have  been 
piled  or  stored  and  partially  rotted.  Usually,  it  is 
found  advisable  to  draw  and  apply  a  part  of  the 
manures  as  produced,  or  after  the}'  have  been  stored 
but  a  few  days  or  a  few  weeks  at  most.  In  all 
such  cases,  they  should  be  applied  to  the  land  upon 
which  plants  are  growing;  and  since  the  entire  farm 
should  be  covered  with  plants  during  the  winter,  the 
manures  may  be  applied  to  those  fields  where  they 
are  likely  to  produce  the  best  results.  The  practice 
of  planting  cover  crops  in  late  summer  and  fall,  in 
orchards  which  have  received  clean  culture  up  to 
the  middle  of  July,  and  after  the  oats,  maize  and 
other  like  crops  have  been  removed,  is  highly  bene- 
ficial. 


Fall   and    Winter   Manuring.  209 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  deep  snows  make  it 
inadvisable  to  practice  winter  manuring;  but  whenever 
conditions  will  permit,  early  winter  application  of 
manure  will  be  found  to  advance  the  spring  work, 
and  to  give  much  better  results  on  grass  and  maize 
lands  than  late  winter  and  spring  manuring  do.  In 
the  spring  the  fields  are  usually  soft,  and  work  is 
pressing;  if,  then,  suitable  provision  is  made  for  stor- 
ing the  by -products  of  the  stables  for  the  last  two 
or  three  months  before  the  animals  go  to  pasture, 
some  manure  will  be  at  hand  for  fall  distribution, 
when   the  work   of    the   farm  is   less   pressing. 

Whenever  a  systematic  rotation  can  be  carried  out, 
and  where  maize,  wheat  and  rye  thrive,  the  manures 
of  the  last  half  of  the  winter  may  be  stored  and 
applied  to  the  wheat  ground,  and  those  of  the  first 
part  of  the  winter  to  the  ground  intended  for  maize. 
Climate,  crops  and  practices  vary  so  much  that  no 
rule  can  be  laid  down  which  will  be  applicable  to  all 
cases;  this  makes  it  necessary  for  every  farmer  to 
know  many  methods,  that  he  may  select  the  ones 
suited  to  his  conditions. 

If  manures  are  applied  freely  to  orchards,  espe- 
cially young  ones,  and  to  such  crops  as  oats  and  bar- 
ley, they  may  stimulate  the  vegetative  system  of  the 
plants  at  the  expense  of  fruitfulness,  and  result  in 
positive  damage;  while  such  forage  crops  as  the  mil- 
lets, maize,  blue -grass  and  timothy,  arc  seldom  in- 
jured, but  usually  benefited  by  such  applications. 
The  annual  growth  of  the  trees,  and  the  color  and 
texture  of  leaf  and  young  shoots,  seldom  fail  to  give 
o 


210  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

unmistakable  signs  of  the  presence  of  too  much  or 
too  little  nitrogen. 

Manures  are  frequently  wasted  by  being  applied 
too  liberally.  It  is  not  economical,  except  for  special 
crops  under  special  conditions,  to  apply  from  20  to 
40  two-horse  loads  or  tons  per  acre  at  one  time. 
The  following  is  a  brief  extract  from  a  letter  received 
not  long  since: 

"I  have  an  acre  of  heavy  soil  manured  with  100 
two-horse  loads  of  barnyard  manure  from  horses, 
cows  and  hogs.  It  was  plowed  under,  the  ground 
fined,  and  another  hundred  loads  applied,  and  the 
ground  fined  deeper  than  before.  Then  75  bushels 
of  slaked  lime  were  harrowed  in.  The  land  was 
planted  to  potatoes."  Later,  the  same  correspondent 
writes:  "The  season  was  very  dry,  and  I  secured  but. 
225  bushels  of  potatoes  on  the  acre." 

Supposing,  now,  that  each  load  weighed  one  ton, 
and  that  the  manure  was  of  fairly  good  quality, 
that  is,  .6  per  cent  nitrogen,  .3  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid  and  .45  per  cent  potash,  it  would  have  con- 
tained the  following  quantities  of  potential  plant- 
food: 

400  bus.  potatoes  5  tons  of  manure 

exclusive  of  vines    225  bus.  potatoes     would  furnish 
require  require  potentially 


Nitrogen. . 

240  lbs. 

50  lbs. 

28.1  lbs. 

CO  lbs 

Phos.  acid. 

120     " 

17    " 

9.5    " 

30    " 

Potash 

180     " 

70    " 

39.3    " 

45    " 

What  percentage  of  the  potential  nourishment 
contained  in  the  manures  plants  can  secure  is  not 
known,  and   it   is   unsafe   to   even   assume   any   given 


Waste   of  Manures. 


211 


quantity,  though  some  writers  have  thought  it  prob- 
able that  under  good  conditions  one -half  might  be 
recovered  the  first  year.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
tables    show    conclusively    that    the    amounts    of   the 


"T-f 


Fill.  :!">-     Brush   mnmire-spreader. 


three  valued  elements  supplied  by  the  liberal  ma- 
nuring were  so  much  in  excess  of  the  wants  of  the 
plants    as    to    have    been    wasteful. 

Liberal  applications  of  coarse  manures  in  the 
winter  on  clayey  lands,  especially  those  covered  with 
grass,  tend  to  keep  them  wet  and   cold   until   late   in 


212  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

the  spring,  which  is  seriously  detrimental  if  the  land 
is  intended  for  maize,  oats  or  barley.  Nor  are 
coarse,  unrotted  manures  suitable  for  sandy  land, 
unless  the  chief  object  is  to  form  mulch  or  winter 
covering  for  the  soil. 

Unrotted  manures,  when  spread  from  the  wagon 
or  sleigh  in  the  winter,  are  not  likely  to  be  dis- 
tributed evenly,  and  therefore  some  attention  should 
be  paid  to  redistributing  them  in  the  spring,  before 
they  become  dry.  On  grass  land  this  work  may 
be  done  rapidly  and  well  by  means  of  a  simple  tool 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  (Fig.  35,  page  211). 
It  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  on  pastures, 
in  the  spring,  to  distribute  the  previous  year's  drop- 
pings of  the  animals  which,  if  left  undisturbed, 
cause  rank  bunches  of  grass,  which  are  refused  by 
the  grazing  animals.  The  implement  is  made  of 
an  oak  plank  one  foot  wide,  pierced  with  suitable 
two -inch   holes,  into  which    is  fastened   heavy   brush. 

Manures  should  be  fairly  well  rotted  before  being 
applied  to  sandy  soils,  or  they  increase  the  porosity 
of  the  land.  Liberal  applications  of  coarse,  dryish 
manures  plowed  under  may,  if  the  weather  is  dry 
and  remains  so,  do  serious  temporary  damage.  The 
more  evenly  manures  are  distributed  the  more  effi- 
ciently they  will  act,  but  it  requires  no  little  skill 
and  labor  to  perform  the  work  in  the  best  manner 
by  hand.  Two -horse  manure -spreaders  handle  many 
kinds  of  manure  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner 
under  favorable  conditions,  but  the  conditions  are  so 
often    unfavorable    that    they   are  not    likely    to  come 


Principles   of  Manuring.  213 

into  universal  use.  That  the  reader  may  not  be  dis- 
tracted by  the  details  of  this  subject,  some  of  which 
must  fail  to  meet  his  case,  a  few  general  though 
not  universal  rules,  expressed  in  a  few  words,  are 
given,  the  substance  of  some  of  which  have  already 
been  stated. 

Distribute  manures  in  fall  and  early  winter, 
thinly  and  evenly  on  or  near  the  surface  where 
plants  are  growing  or  will  soon  appear.  Light  and 
frequent  applications  are  better  than  infrequent,  lib- 
eral ones.  A  moderate  increased  production  of  many 
fields  from  year  to  year  is  better  than  a  great  in- 
crease on  a  single  field  for  a  few  years.  Barn 
manures  are  most  economically  used  if  associated 
with  cover  and  green  crops,  improved  tillage,  and 
in  many  cases  in  conjunction  with  light  applications 
of  lime,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  in  some 
cases  with  nitrogen,  salt  and  gypsum. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NITROGEN  AND    NITRIFICATION. 

If  a  field  of  wheat,  barley  or  maize  is  inspected 
before  it  approaches  maturity,  and  especially  when  tne 
plants  are  but  a  few  inches  high,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  foliage  in  some  portions  of  the  field  is  not 
only  more  luxuriant,  but  of  a  much  darker  green 
than  that  in  other  portions.  These  dark  green  places 
may  be  grouped  together  in  small  areas  not  larger 
than  a  foot  in .  diameter,  or  they  may  occupy  large 
areas,  and  in  some  cases  the  entire  field  may  have 
a  dark  color.  This  denotes  that  the  plants  are 
abundantly  supplied  with  nitrogen,  and  have  at  least 
a  moderate  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

When  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  has  been 
made  superior  by  tillage,  and  suitable  moisture  is 
present,  the  plants  are,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
able  to  secure  sufficient  nitrogen  for  normal  growth, 
although  the  soil  may  carry  comparatively  little  nitro- 
gen or  nitrogenous  compounds.  Plants  may  suffer 
for  want  of  nitrogen,  although  there  is  an  abundance 
of  it,  in  a  potential  form,  in  the  soil.  It  is  only 
in  rare  cases  that  the  land  does  not  contain  enough 
potential  nitrogen  which  could  be  made  available 
profitably    by  intensified    tillage,  and   most   productive 

(214) 


How    to  Treat  Light    Soils.  215 

soils  carry  potential  nitrogen  sufficient  for  from  fifty 
to  two  hundred  average  crops  of  the  cereals. 

The  first  effort  should  be  to  determine  whether 
it  is  best  to  hasten  nitrification  by  extra  tillage  and 
aeration,  or  if  it  is  more  desirable  to  withhold  the 
extra  tillage  and  add  purchased  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds. On  light  soils,  tillage  may  be  carried  so  far 
as  to  deplete  the  land  of  its  humus,  and  lessen  its 
moisture-holding  capacity.  Extra  tillage  presupposes 
that  suitable  measures  will  be  taken  to  supply  the 
soil  with  organic  material  by  means  of  manures  or 
plants,  sufficient  to  keep  the  soil  filled  with  humus  and 
in  a  congenial  physical  condition.  In  some  cases,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  depend  in  part  on  purchased 
nitrogen,  rather  than  to  call  upon  the  laud  for  the 
entire  supply  needed,  as  in  the  latter  case  what  is 
gained  by  extra  tillage  may  be  offset  by  the  depletion 
of  soil  humus.  Just  how  much  reserve  potential  nitro- 
gen should  be  carried,  and  how  much  humus,  and 
how  much  should  be  brought  from  outside  sources, 
can  be  determined  only  by  the  most  careful  experi- 
mentation and  observation. 

In  promoting  nitrification  by  tillage,  the  mineral 
constituents  of  the  soil  are  also  rendered  more  avail- 
able. Here,  again,  is  met  the  business  or  financial 
side  of  this  problem;  but  it  may  be  said  that  all 
plants  are  so  markedly  benefited  by  superior  soil  con- 
ditions that  excellent  physical  conditions  should  be 
secured,  even  if  the  oxidation  of  the  humus  is  car- 
ried farther  than  is  desirable.  Under  ordinary  con- 
ditions,  tenacious    soils   are    seldom    seriously  depleted 


216  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

of  their  organic  material  by  extra  tillage,  but  when 
one  crop  follows  another  without  any  humus- pro- 
ducing crop  intervening,  especially  in  warm  climates, 
meager  production  may  be  due  quite  as  much  to 
the  lack  of  humus  as  to  lack  of  available  plant- 
food. 

Whenever  the  physical  condition  of  the  land  is 
superior,  less  potential  plant -food  in  the  soil  is  re- 
quired for  a  given  result  than  when  the  physical 
conditions  are  bad.  How  much  may  be  taken  out 
and  how  much  reserve  inust  be  left  in  the  soil, 
and  yet  maintain,  and  even  increase,  the  most  profit- 
able production  of  the  farm,  is  the  problem  which 
constantly  recurs  to  the  man  who  would  secure  the 
most  satisfactory  results,  all  things  considered.  This 
problem  is  followed  by  others, — how  best  to  make 
the  elements  of  the  soil  available,  and  how  best  to 
maintain  the  necessary  reserve.  It  will  lie  seen 
how  complex  agriculture  becomes  when  an  attempt 
is  made  to  change  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the 
soil  into  available  nitrogen  with  the  view  of  re- 
moving it  from  the  land,  although  at  first  we  take 
no  account  of  the  chemical  and  biological  changes 
which  are  constantly  going  on,  and  consider  the 
question  only  from  the  farmer's  standpoint. 

The  soil  must  contain,  in  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary mineral  constituents  of  plants,  a  suitable  supply 
of  available  nitrogen,  or  the  plants  cannot  make  the 
necessary  growth  requisite  for  abundant  fruitage. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vegetative  system  of  the 
plant  is  overfed  by  an  excessive  amount  of   nitrogen, 


Over -feeding   Plants.  217 

fruitage  is  reduced,  and  the  plants  are  likely  to  be 
attacked  by  many  enemies,  such  as  rust  and  mildew, 
which  they  might  in  part  or  entirely  resist  if  a  less 
or  normal  amount  of   available  nitrogen  were  present. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  an  abundant 
supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  especially  the 
former,  tends  to  increase  fruitfulness,  hardiness  and 
firmness  of  leaves  and  stems,  while  an  abundance 
of  nitrogen  has  a  tendency  to  produce  just  the  re- 
verse conditions;  and  while  the  plant  cannot  be  at 
its  best  without  a  suitable  supply  of  nitrogen,  the 
plants  which  are  grown  chiefly  for  their  fruits  may 
be  easily  injured  by  an  amount  only  slightly  exceed- 
ing a  sufficiency. 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  in  recent  ex- 
periments with  wheat  sown  in  drills  twenty -four 
inches  apart  and  given  frequent  tillage,  the  blades, 
stems  and  heads  all  showed  that  the  plants  were 
using  an  excess  of  nitrogen,  which  was  made  avail- 
able to  them  by  superior  tillage  and  thin  seeding. 
The  wide  intervals  between  the  drills  allowed  the 
plants  three  times  the  feeding  ground  usually  given. 
The  period  of  maturing  the  grain  was  prolonged  a 
full  week,  and  the  rust  was  far  more  abundant 
than  on  the  leaves  of  plants  growing  in  adjoining 
plats  which  had  been  drilled  and  treated  in  the 
usual  manner.  These  observations  were  made  on 
land  of  moderate  fertility,  from  which  one  crop  of 
maize  and  two  of  wheat  had  been  taken  in  the 
previous  three  years,  no  fertilizers  having  been  used 
on  any  of  them. 


218  The   Fertility   of  the    Tand. 

When  some  crops,  which  are  valued  chiefly  for 
their  leaves  and  stems,  are  considered,  there  may  be 
no  danger  from  an  abundant  supply  of  available 
nitrogen,  though  it  may  be  said  that  the  quality  of 
forage  crops  which  have  been  highly  stimulated  by  a 
superabundance  of  nitrogen  is  not  as  good  as  that 
of  forage  grown  on  land  supplied  with  a  less  amount 
of  nitrogen  and  a  full  or  even  liberal  supply  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  crops  raised 
for  fruit  or  for  forage  chiefly,  does  not  always  hold 
good  when  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  maize,  since 
this  plant  is  not  only  able  to  grow  on  coarse  and 
partially  decayed  farm  manures  without  injury,  but 
is  benefited  far  more  by  added  nitrogen  than  most 
plants  are.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fruit 
and  stalk  of  maize,  if  not  planted  too  thickly,  and  if 
given  suitable  inter- tillage,  appear  to  be  benefited  by 
not  only  an  abundance  of  mineral  plant -food,  but  of 
nitrogen  as  well. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  discussion  or  investigation 
of  the  subject  of  nitrogen  and  nitrification  would  be 
of  little  value  unless  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
•soil  and  the  available  moisture  which  it  contains  are 
also  considered.  No  matter  how  fully  and  cheaply 
the  soil  may  be  supplied  with  nitrogen  and  nitrog- 
enous compounds,  if  it  does  not  furnish  a  comfort- 
able home  for  the  plant,  or  if,  for  considerable 
periods,  there  is  not  enough  moisture  present  to 
transport  the  plant -food  into  the  plants,  little  benefit 
may  be  expected   from  the   real   or   potential   nourish- 


Inter -tillage    Essential.  219 

raent  carried  in  the  land.  Plants  suffer  oftener  from 
lack  of  moisture  than  from  lack  of  food. 

To  illustrate,  the  following  results  of  investigations 
conducted  in  1895-99  with  potatoes  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity Experiment  Station  are  given.  The  land  se- 
lected for  the  experiment  was  a  gravelly  soil  underlaid 
by  a  porous  subsoil  through  which  the  water  readily 
passed.  For  twenty  years  preceding  the  experiment, 
a  four-year  rotation  had  been  adopted, — clover  or 
clover  and  timothy  one  year,  mowed  and  pastured  or 
mowed  twice,  lightly  manured  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter ;  maize  one  year ;  oats  or  barley  without  ma- 
nure or  other  fertilizer  one  year ;  followed  by  winter 
wheat  one  year. 

In  1893  a  crop  of  clover  was  removed,  and  in  1894 
a  crop  of  maize  was  removed,  after  which  the  land 
was  carefully  divided  into  plats  of  one -twentieth  of 
an  acre  each.  Late  in  the  fall  of  1894  the  land  was 
plowed  deeply,  and  about  May  1,  1895,  all  plats  were 
gang -plowed  and  thoroughly  harrowed.  May  3  and 
4  potatoes  were  planted  upon  eight  plats.  The 
average  yield  from  the  eight  plats  was  353  bushels  of 
potatoes  per  acre,  or  more  than  five  times  the  average 
yield  of  potatoes  in  New  York*  (G8.8  bushels).  In 
1896  the  potato  experiments  were  conducted  upon  plats 
adjoining  and  similar  in  character,  though  rather 
poorer,  from  which  two  crops  of  corn  had  been  taken, 
one  in  1894  and  another  in  1895.  The  potatoes  were 
planted   May  9,   1896,  four   plats   (7,  8,  9    and    10)   to 

•According  to  the  Eleventh  Census  erf  the  United  States,  1890. 


22(1  The   Fertility  of  the   Land. 

Rural  New-Yorker  No.  2.  and  two  plats  (11  and  12)  to 
Dutton.  Plat  7  received  fertilizer  at  the  rate  per  acre 
of  200  pounds  muriate  of  potash  and  300  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  while  plat  8  received  no  fertilizer. 
Both  plats  were  inter- tilled  seven  times,  plat  7  yield- 
ing 310.5  bushels,  and  plat  8,  350.3  bushels  per  acre. 
Plat  9  was  inter -tilled  eleven  times,  and  plat  12  seven 
times.  They  yielded  respectively  338.1  bushels  and 
341.6  bushels  per  acre.  Plats  10  and  11  were  each 
inter-tilled  three  times.  The  former  gave  a  yield  of 
280  bushels,  and  the  latter  299.69  bushels  per  acre  ; 
or  the  two  plats  (9  and  12),  with  frequent  tillage,  gave 
an  average  yield  of  339.85  bushels  per  acre,  while  the 
two  plats  (10  and  11),  with  infrequent  tillage,  gave  an 
average  of  289.83  bushels  per  acre. 

In  1897  ten  plats  were  devoted  to  experiments  with 
potatoes.  Of  these  ten  plats,  two  (34  and  35)  were 
inter-tilled  eight  times,  and  gave  an  average  yield  of 
370  bushels  per  acre.  Two  plats  (41  and  42)  were 
inter -tilled  seven  times,  and  gave  an  average  yield  of 
333  bushels  per  acre.  Six  plats  (36,  37,  38,  39,  40  and 
43)  were  inter- tilled  five  times,  and  yielded  an  average 
of  302  bushels  per  acre.  The  soil  on  these  various 
plats  was  rather  better  on  the  plats  which  received  the 
five  cultures  than  on  the  plats  which  were  cultivated 
eight  times.  All  plats  on  which  the  above  experi- 
ments were  conducted  in  1897  were  plowed  April  2 
and  3,  and  thoroughly  harrowed.  In  preparation 
and  planting  all  plats  were  treated  alike,  and  the 
widely  varying  results  can  only  be  ascribed  to  the 
better  conditions  provided  by  superior  inter- tillage. 


Experiments    with    Potatoes.  221 

In  1898  tillage  experiments  with  potatoes  were 
conducted  upon  eleven  plats,  six  of  which  received 
inter-tillage  six  times  and  five  of  which  were  inter- 
tilled three  times.  The  average  yield  per  acre  from  the 
six  plats  (21,  22,  26,  29,  30  and  32),  which  received 
six  cultures,  was  284.2  bushels  per  acre.  The  average 
from  five  plats  (23,  24,  25,  27  and  28),  which  were 
cultivated  three  times,  was  302  bushels  per  acre. 
While  the  increased  tillage  does  not  show  the  marked 
results  upon  the  plats  this  year  as  in  former  years, 
the  average  of  all  plats  is  still  well  above  the  average 
yield  for  the  state.  A  severe  drought,  preceded  and 
followed  by  excessive  rains,  no  doubt  considerably 
reduced  the  yield.  The  plats  which  received  three 
cultures  were  upon  rather  better  soil  than  were  the 
plats  receiving  six  cultures.  At  one  time  during 
growth  the  moisture  contained  in  the  surface  six 
inches  of  soil  was  reduced  to  4  per  cent.  It  is  prob- 
able that  where  three  cultures  were  given  all  the 
plant -food  was  liberated  that  could  be  brought  into 
solution  by  the  moisture  present. 

The  most  important  lesson  taught  by  this  series  of 
experiments  is  not  the  comparative  yield  of  one  plat 
with  another,  but  the  uniformly  high  yield  from  all 
plats.  When  it  is  considered  that  no  fertilizer  has 
been  applied,  except  iD  one  case,  and  that  the  land 
lias  been  heavily  cropped  year  after  year,  the  impor- 
tance of  thorough  preparation  for  the  crop  is  empha- 
sized. All  the  plats  were  deeply  plowed  from  two  tcv 
three  times  each  year,  and  given  the  most  thorough 
preparation  before  planting.     Plowing  was  done  early 


222  The    Fertility   of  the    Lavd. 

in  the  spring  before  the  stores  of  soil  moisture  had 
become  disseminated  by  evaporation,  the  rainfall  was 
quickly  absorbed,  and  the  inter -tillage  kept  the  sur- 
face mulch  renewed,  and  thus  largely  prevented  loss 
by  evaporation,  and  the  plant -food  which  was  made 
available  was  brought  into  solution  and  thus  rendered 
of  use  to  the  growing  plants.  For  detailed  report 
and  summarized  tables,  see  Bulletin  156,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  December, 
1898,  Third  Report  on  Potato  Culture. 

Other  equally  striking  experiments  could  be  cited 
to  show  the  marked  effect  produced  by  frequent  and 
superior  tillage  in  securing  available  nitrogen  and  in 
conserving  moisture,  but  those  given  will  suffice  to 
call  attention  to  the  means  which  may  be  success- 
fully used  to  furnish  nitrogen  and  other  necessary 
plant-food,  and  moisture,  continuously  to  the  grow- 
ing plant.  True,  frequent  inter- tillage  benefits  pota- 
toes more  than  most  other  plants,  since  the  earth- 
mulch,  in  addition  to  the  beneficial  effects  already 
noted,  serves  to  keep  the  soil  cool,  a  condition  which 
is  highly  beneficial  to  the  potato  in  most  localities. 
This  earth -mulch  was  kept  up  until  late  in  the  sea- 
son, and  seemed  to  be  quite  as  beneficial  in  the 
late  as  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  although 
it  was  not  so  perfect,  since  the  cultivators  had  to 
be  narrowed  up,  that  the  partly  grown  tubers  might 
not  be  disturbed. 

From  these  and  other  similar  experiments,  we  are 
irresistibly    led    to    the    conclusion    that    the    meager 


Storer  on    Nitrification.  223 

crops  so  universally  secured  are  usually  not  due  so 
much  to  a  lack  of  rainfall  and  potential  nitrogen 
and  other  elements  of  plant  growth  in  the  soil,  as 
to  lack  of  ability  or  knowledge  to  make  them 
available.  Here,  again,  we  arrive  at  the  point  where 
a  choice  must  be  made  between  utilizing  the  plant- 
food  and  moisture  already  in  the  soil,  or  securing 
the  one  by  purchase  and  the  other  by  expensive 
irrigation. 

The  discussion  of  the  subject  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  observant  farmer,  who  would  utilize  in 
the  best  manner  possible  the  latent  wealth  of  the 
soil,  naturally  prepares  the  way  for  considering  the 
plant's  need  of  nitrogen,  and  the  best  means  to  se- 
cure the  highest  results  by  the  utilization  of  the 
complex  forces  which,  if  understood,  may  materially 
assist  in  making  a  wise  use  of  the  land,  while 
leaving  it  unimpaired  for  future  generations. 

The  foregoing  investigations  show  the  need  of 
testing  the  soil  to  determine  if  it  will  respond 
quickly  and  profitably  to  superior  tillage,  or  if  it 
may  be  necessary  to  add  nitrogenous  compounds,  or 
to  hasten  nitrification  by  the  application  of  lime,  or 
by  other  means  besides  tillage.  They  also  serve  to 
emphasize  the  full  meaning  of  the  word  manure, 
which  is  derived  from  the  French  word  manoeuvre)-, — 
"to  work  by  hand."  Manauvrer  might  be  translated 
into  modern  thought  by  the  single  word  tillage. 

The  need  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  succinctly 
set    forth    by    Storer:*   "Long-continned    observation 


•Agriculture,  I.  292.  313. 


224  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

and  many  experiments  have  proved  that,  beside  the 
inorganic  or  ash  ingrediencs  of  plants,  there  must 
always  be  some  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  in 
order  that  a  crop  may  attain  any  considerable  de- 
velopment. The  growth  of  forests  and  of  all  wild 
plants  is  really  no  exception  to  the  rule.  It  is 
certain  that  there  must  be  nitrogen  in  some  shape 
in  the  soil,  if  there  is  to  be  abundant  vegetation, 
and  it  is  precisely  in  the  case  of  wild  plants  that 
the  influence  of  nitrates  is  on  the  whole  most 
strongly  marked.  The  nitrates,  like  other  easily  as- 
similable nitrogenized  compounds,  promote  to  a 
marked  degree  the  growth  of  the  leafy  part  of  the 
plant,  and  the  leaves  of  plants  thus  fed  are  char- 
acterized by  a  peculiarly  intense  green  color." 

"But  let  him  [the  farmer]  do  his  best,  he  can 
never  accumulate  a  very  large  proportion  of  nitrates 
in  his  field,  for  the  soil  has  little  or  no  power 
permanently  to  retain  these  substances.  Every  rain- 
fall dissolves  the  nitrates  which  have  formed  in  the 
upper  layers  of  the  soil,  and  carries  them  down 
into  or  towards  the  lower  layers,  and  in  case  the 
rain  should  happen  to  be  abundant  and  long-con- 
tinued it  may  even  wash  the  nitrates  utterly  out  of 
the  soil.  The  double  silicates,  which  serve  so  well 
to  arrest  potash  and  ammonia,  have  no  power  to 
stop  the  waste  of  nitric  acid." 

One  manurial  ingredient  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
of  more  importance  than  another,  but  one  may  as- 
sume more  importance  than  another  because  of  the 
greater  expense  or  difficulty  in  securing  it,  or  because 


Constituents   of  Plants    Variable.  225 

a  slightly  insufficient  supply  may  more  seriously 
affect  production  than  when  some  other  ingredient  is 
insufficiently  supplied  to  the  same  extent. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  plants,  like  ani- 
mals, tend  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  placed,  and  so  long  as  these  condi- 
tions do  not  depart  too  widely  from  the  normal, 
little  or  no  harm  occurs.  A  variety  of  wheat  not 
infrequently  gives  virtually  the  same  yield  per  acre 
when  raised  on  soils  widely  different  as  to  their  char- 
acter and  composition.  Of  two  plats  of  grain  of  the 
same  variety,  one  may  give  much  more  straw  than 
the  other  while  the  yield  of  grain  is  virtually  alike, 
and  the  question  is  raised,  had  one  too  little  nitro- 
gen ,    or   had    one  too   much  ? 

If  the  grains  grown  from  various  plats,  differ- 
ently fertilized,  and  which  give  virtually  the  same 
yield,  be  analyzed,  it  will  be  found  that  they  differ 
materially  as  to  the  proportion  of  their  constituents. 
It  would,  then,  appear  that  a  knowledge  of  the  com- 
position of  the  soil  and  plant  does  not  solve  the 
difficult  problem  of  feeding  plants,  though  such 
knowledge  is  likely  to  be  of  great  advantage.  Here, 
again,  we  are  sent  to  the  field  with  a  long  list  of 
questions  which  can  only  be  answered,  if  at  all,  in 
the  presence  of  the  growing  plant.  It  must  be  fully 
realized,  too,  that  the  learner  is  in  the  presence, 
not  of  one  force,  but  of  many,  which  may  act  and 
react  upon  each  other  in  complex  and  mysterious 
ways.  An  orgauized,  living  thing  is  to  be  studied, 
a    flexible    plant,    subject,    within    certain     limits,    to 

P 


226  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

marked  variations,  in  a  single  generation,  and  which 
may  be  increased  and  in  time  become  fixed. 

One  leguminous  crop  in  a  four  or  five-year  rota- 
tion, coupled  with  nitrogen -producing  cover  crops, 
can  be  made  to  furnish  nearly  all  the  nitrogen 
needed  by  the  other  crops  in  the  rotation.  Add  to 
this  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  excrements  of  domes- 
tic animals,  that  stored  in  the  soil,  and  that  brought 
to  the  land  from  natural  sources,  and  the  supply 
from  these  sources  may  be  made  equal  to  the  de- 
mand, except   for   a   few  special  crops. 

Long  experience  in  the  management  and  tillage 
of  widely  separated  farms,  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  under  wise  management  a  full  supply  of  nitro- 
gen for  the  ordinary  fruits  and  grains,  for  lands 
which  are  now  fairly  productive,  can  be  supplied 
from  home  resources  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States.  Wherever  land  is  reasonably  cheap 
and  the  legumes  flourish,  and  the  climate  is  adapted 
to  the  rearing  of  domestic  animals,  the  farmer  is 
unwise  who  purchases  nitrogen  at  from  12  to  20  cents 
per  pound,  instead  of  securing  it  from  inexpensive 
home  resources. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  make  provision  for  keeping 
the  soil  fully  supplied  with  potential  nitrogen  and 
humus,  as  the  aid  of  a  large  variety  of  plants 
suited  to  varied  condition  can  be  secured  in  most 
localities.  Some  can  withstand  the  severest  winter; 
others  are  able  to  flourish  in  hot  and  even  semi- 
arid  districts,  and  may  be  used  in  part  or  wholly 
as   humus   and    nitrogen    producers.      As    soon  as  one 


Plant,  Animal,  and    Soil.  227 

class  of  plants  has  fruited,  and  even  before,  other 
plants  may  be  started,  thereby  keeping  the  land  con- 
stantly employed  in  furnishing,  through  the  plant, 
the  desired  nitrogenous  compounds  and  humus.  Add 
to  these  sources  the  farm  manures,  and  the  ques- 
tion of  a  supply  of  nitrogen  is  usually  solved,  pro- 
vided, always,  that  skill  is  used  in  conserving  it  and 
in  making  it  available.  It  is  one  thing  to  have 
the  means  at  hand  for  securing  a  full  supply  of 
nitrogen,  and  quite  another  to  know  how  to  wisely 
use  them;  or,  in  other  words,  how  most  wisely  to 
make  use  of  plant,  animal  and  soil  to  secure  this 
high-priced  and  necessaiy  element. 

Plants  are  unable  to  live  on  the  product  of  pre- 
ceding plants  until  the  organized  matter  of  these 
preceding  plants  has  been  broken  down  and  re- 
solved into  original  compounds.  Scientific  farming 
may  be  said  to  consist  in  part  in  filling  the  soil 
with  cheap  and  refuse  potential  plant-food,  and  in 
taking  it  out  of  the  soil  as  finished  products  so 
skilfully  that  the  supply  is  kept  equal  to  the  de- 
mand, and  this  with  profit  to  the  farmer  and  ben- 
efit to  the  land.  It  is  one  thing  to  put  potential 
plant -food  into  the  soil,  and  quite  another  to  get 
it  out  profitably.  There  sire  various  means  used  to 
secure  the  desired  results,  amongst  which  tillage  has 
been  already  mentioned,  but  dependence  should  not 
be  placed  on  this  alone. 

The  relation  of  lime  to  nitrification  demands  ;i 
word  at  this  point.  While  lime  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  for   many  centuries  to    furnish    plant -food 


228  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

indirectly,  and  while  many  investigations  have  been 
conducted  to  discover  the  complex  action  of  lime 
when  applied  to  the  land,  and  while  something  is 
positively  known  as  to  its  action,  so  many  contradic- 
tory results  are  reached  that  the  farmer  is  impelled 
to  test  its  action  not  only  on  his  own  farm,  but  on 
every  field  of  it,  in  order  to  arrive  at  facts  which 
are  applicable  to  his  own  conditions;  and  this  is  not 
strange,  for  the  soil  is  not  one  uniform  mass,  but  is 
naturally  extremely  variable.  Most  of  the  earthy 
parts  of  the  soil  have  been  transported  long  distances 
by  the  action  of  ice  and  water,  sifted,  sorted  and  de- 
posited under  such  a  multitude  of  conditions  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility,  in  many  cases,  of  its  being 
similar,  much  less  alike,  over  a  single  field  of  a  few 
acres  Not  infrequently  a  single  acre  contains  soils 
which  may  be  classified  under  three  or  four  entirely 
distinct   heads. 

But,  as  has  been  said,  some  of  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  liming  land  are  well  established.  When 
mild  lime  is  applied  in  moderate  quantities  it 
tends  to  promote  nitrification,  and  to  make  avail- 
able the  dormant  plant-food.  It  may  promote  nitri- 
fication by  improving  the  physical  character  of  the 
soil,  thereby  making  it  more  comfortable  for  the 
micro-organisms,  or  it  may  correct  the  acidity  of 
the  land,  thereby  promoting  the  multiplication  of 
these  organisms,  or  it  may  serve  to  supply  a  mineral 
element  necessary  to  their  well  being,  or  it  may, 
through  its  varied  actions,  arrest  the  development 
of    denitrifying   organisms.     Neither    the    farmer    nor 


Nitrification   Hastened   by    Lime.  229 

the  biologist  can  tell,  usually,  whether  only  one  or 
all  of  these  beneficial  effects  have  been  produced, 
but  they  may  know  that  benefits  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  have  or  have  not  been  received,  by  observing 
the  plant  and  its  fruit. 

While  a  moderate  application  of  lime  usually 
promotes  nitrification,  a  too  liberal  application  may 
retard  it.  Aikman*  states  the  case  clearly  when  he 
says:  "The  action  of  lime  on  nitrogenous  organic 
matter  is  of  a  very  striking  kind,  and  is  by  no 
means  very  clearly  understood.  As  we  have  pointed 
out,  it  sometimes  acts  as  an  antiseptic  or  preserva- 
tive; and  this  antiseptic  or  preservative  action  has 
been  explained  on  the  assumption  that  insoluble 
albuminates  of  lime  are  formed.  Its  action  in  such 
industries  as  calico  printing,  where  it  has  been  used 
along  with  casein  for  fixing  coloring  matter;  or,  in 
sugar  refining,  where  it  is  used  for  clarifying  the 
sugar  by  precipitating  the  albuminous  matter  in 
solution  in  the  saccharine  liquor;  or,  lastly,  in  puri- 
fying sewage, —  has  been  cited  in  support  of  this 
theory.  While,  however,  there  may  be  circumstances 
in  which  lime,  especially  in  its  caustic  form,  acts  as 
an  antiseptic,  its  general  tendency  is  to  promote 
these  fermentative  changes,  such  as  nitrification,  so 
important  to  plant -life." 

Gypsum  is  known  to  have  the  power  of  fixing 
ammonia  (which  is  one  part  nitrogen  and  three 
parts  hydrogen),  and  to  hasten  nitrification,  and  may 
be    used    in    many  eases   to    great   advantage    in    both 

*  Manures  au  J  Manuring,  480. 


230  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

stable  and  field.  The  gypsum  is  sold  without  a 
guaranteed  analysis,  and  too  frequently  it  is  little, 
if  any,  better  than  fine,  dry,  rich  earth  as  an 
ammonia -fixer  or  a  promoter  of  nitrification.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  part  of  wisdom  to  purchase  sparingly 
until  the  purity  and  fineness  of  the  product  is 
known,  or  until  there  is  certain  knowledge  that  the 
benefits  derived  from  the  use  of  gypsum  exceed  in 
value  its  cost. 

Nitrification  is  promoted  either  by  long  or  short 
fallows  conducted  during  the  warmer  months,  but 
if  a  superabundance  of  rain  falls  upon  the  land 
before  growing  plants  have  made  use  of  the  nitro- 
gen rendered  available  by  tillage,  serious  loss  may 
occur.  This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  fallow 
lands,  and  those  which  have  received  frequent  tillage 
while  producing  a  summer  inter-tilled  crop,  should 
be  fully  occupied  by  plants  before  the  fall  or  winter 
rains  occur.  Moderate  rains  may  serve  to  carry  the 
available  nitrogen  downward,  but  it  tends  to  rise  to 
or  near  the  surface  as  soon  as  capillary  action  is  re- 
stored. But  if  the  water  leaches  through  or  passes 
off  the  land  rich  in  soluble  nitrogenous  compounds, 
serious    loss  may  occur. 

While  fewer  nitrogen -producing  plants  are  raised 
in  the  south  than  in  the  north,  nitrification  is  far 
more  active  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern 
states.  These  conditions  indicate  that  the  northern 
farmer  should  lay  stress  on  hastening  nitrification 
by  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  drainage 
and    tillage,  while    the    southern    farmer   should   cover 


Clovers    Fix    Nitrogen.  231 

all  his  cultivated  land  with  leguminous  plants  afcer 
the  regular  crops  have  been  laid  by  or  removed. 

Since  crimson  clover  is  found  to  thrive  all  through 
the  southern  country,  it  would  seem  that  a  more 
general  use  might  be  made  of  it  to  great  advantage. 
The  first  requisite  to  success  is  a  suitable  seed- bed. 
High  ridge  tillage,  so  universally  in  vogue  in  both 
maize  and  cotton  fields,  might  be  somewhat  modified, 
especially  in  the  case  of  maize,  and  somewhat  more 
level  inter- tillage  given.  After  the  summer  tillage 
has  been  completed,  a  fine  seed-bed  could  be  prepared 
between  the  rows  without  destroying  the  ridges,  by 
the  use  of  a  one-horse  cultivator  provided  with 
many  smallish  teeth,  passed,  over  each  space  once  be- 
fore and  once  after  the  seeds  are  sown.  In  a 
similar  way,  all  oat  stubbles  could  be  prepared  and 
seeded,  as  well  as  orchard  and  other  open  lands.  On 
these  otherwise  unoccupied  spaces  crimson  clover 
could  be  used  as  a  cover  crop  wherever  it  flourishes. 
Should  the  practice  of  using  crimson  clover  as  a 
catch  or  cover  crop  be  associated  with  a  more  gen- 
eral cultivation  of  the  cow  pea,  the  problem  of  a  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  for  tilled  lands  would  be  practically 
solved  for  the  south. 

In  most  of  the  southern  states  a  warm  summer 
and  fall,  in  which  nitrification  is  extremely  active,  is 
followed  by  superabundant  rains,  which  wash  out  the 
nitrogen  liberated  during  the  warm  weather,  and  in 
some  eases  cause  such  degradation  of  the  soil  as  to 
destroy  its  usefulness  for  tillage  purposes.  By  cov- 
ering the  laud   with    living  plants,  this  degradation  of 


232  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

the  soil  might  be  prevented  and  the  nitrogen  largely 
conserved. 

Beneficial  results  are  frequently  not  secured  by 
applications  of  nitrogen  and  other  forms  of  plant- 
food,  for  one  or  both  of  two  reasons.  The  breeding 
of  the  plant  may  be  such  that  it  can  not  make  use 
of  more  food  than  the  soil  naturally  supplies,  or  the 
soil  may  be  so  imperfectly  fitted  that  the  plant,  no 
matter  how  high-bred,  can  not  secure  it. 

Moisture  plays  an  important  part  not  only  in  the 
growth  and  fruitage  of  plants,  but  also  in  changing 
nitrogenous  compounds  into  nitrates.  Happily,  the 
means  used  to  conserve  moisture  and  secure  nitrogen 
may,  at  the  same  time,  be  made  to  increase  or  re- 
duce the  temperature  and  to  secure  superior  physical 
texture  of  the  soil. 

Briefly,  then,  the  living  plant  and  the  implements 
of  tillage,  intelligently  used,  furnish  the  means  for 
changing  dormant  plant -food  into  that  which  is  avail- 
able, for  conserving  moisture,  for  promoting  nitrifica- 
tion while  adding  and  conserving  nitrogen,  for  mak- 
ing the  conditions  comfortable  for  the  crops,  and  for 
accomplishing  these  and  other  results  in  the  simplest, 
cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  manner. 

PREVENTION   OP    LOSS   OF   NITROGEN   IN   STABLE 
MANURES. 

So  much  has  been  said  concerning  the  absorption 
of  nitrogen,  or  the  retarding  of  nitrogen -loss,  in  ma- 
nures, by  means   of    various  coverings  and  chemicals, 


Nitrogen   Dissipation.  233 

that  a  somewhat  full  abstract  is  here  given  of  a 
recent  German  discussion  of   the  subject. 

In  a  recent  article  by  H.  Immendorff  on  the  con- 
servation of  the  nitrogen  of  stable  manure,*  the 
subject  is  introduced  by  stating  that  of  the  substances 
in  manure  which  are  to  be  saved,  it  is  agreed  that 
the  nitrogen  is  of  first  importance  and  the  organic 
matter  next.  As  to  the  method  of  conservation — 
chemical  or  mechanical — much  difference  of  opinion 
exists.  This  the  author  considers  to  be  due  to  incor- 
rect knowledge  of  the  sequence  of  the  events  to  be 
controlled,  and  to  the  insufficient  separation  of  work 
of  fundamental  importance  upon  the  subject  from 
work  of  minor  importance.  It  is  of  prime  importance 
to  know  when  and  where,  in  the  ordinary  farm  opera- 
tions, losses  occur,  and  what  course  of  events  causes 
them. 

The  dissipation  of  free  nitrogen  has  been  held  by 
some  to  be  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  value  in  manure. 
Exact  experiments  to  determine  this  loss  showed  this 
element  escaping  (in  the  absence  of  nitrous  or  nitric 
acid)  only  when  comparatively  large  quantities  of  air 
had  access  to  the  fermenting  masses.  This  condi- 
tion lasts  at  the  most  but  20  days  in  ordinary  farm 
practice.  Experiments  by  the  author  with  bone, 
horn,  flesh  and  blood  meal  without  admixture  of 
earth,  and  with  much  air  accessible,  showed  as  high 
as  60  per  cent  loss  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the 
original  material  in  the  form  of  ammonia;  and  the 
loss  of   free    nitrogen    was    undeterminable    generally, 

•Journal   fur  Landwirtsehaft,  vol.  xlii.  1894.      Translated  by  G.  X.  Lauman. 


234  The   Fertility   of  the    Ijind. 

and  in  the  case  of  greatest  loss  amounted  to  6.2 
per  cent  for  a  time  of  121  days,  giving  for  20  days  a 
loss  of  a  fraction  over  1  per  cent. 

With  the  addition  of  soil  or  soil  extract  to  these 
materials,  the  conditions  for  the  development  of  free 
nitrogen  were  much  more  favorable.  In  one  exper- 
iment, showing  the  highest  loss  of  free  nitrogen, 
the  soil  was  saturated  with  ammonium  sulfate 
([NH4]3K04)  and  then  there  escaped  as  free  nitro- 
gen, in  113  days,  20.6  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  in 
the  original  substance.  This,  calculated  for  20  days, 
gives  a  loss  of  3.8  per  cent.  Other  experimenters 
have  reached  similar  results,  and  Immendorff  con- 
cludes that  "the  elementary  nitrogen  set  free  in  the 
processes  of  fermentation  and  decomposition  does 
not  account  for  the  great  loss  of  nitrogen  occur- 
ring in  the  manure  from  the  moment  of  produc- 
tion   to   the   time   of   deposition    on    the   field." 

In  the  foregoing,  it  has  not  been  considered  that 
in  the  presence  of  nitrous  or  nitric  acid  the  losses 
of  free  nitrogen  may  become  considerable.  In  nor- 
mal, fresh  manure,  there  are  neither  nitrates  nor 
nitrites,  and  the  first  fermentations  which  take  place 
are  those  in  which  large  quantities  of  hydrogen- 
containing  products,  and  even  free  hydrogen,  are 
produced.  It  has,  however,  never  been  observed  that 
during  the  most  energetic  formation  of  ammonia 
the  nitrifying  organisms  develop  any  greater  activity. 
In  the  stable,  therefore,  it  will  seldom  or  never  hap- 
pen that  nitric  acid  will  appear  in  such  quantities  as 
to   cause   serious   trouble.     On    the    manure    pile,  only 


Uitrogen    Escapes   as   Ammonia.  235 

the  surface  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  formation 
of  the  oxids  of  nitrogen,  and  here  it  may  be  of 
importance  to  check  this  tendency  by  good  packing 
and  covering. 

From  all  the  foregoing  and  other  data  which  the 
author  discusses,  he  concludes  as  follows:  (1)  "The 
chief  cause  for  the  loss  of  combined  nitrogen  which 
manure  undergoes  in  the  ordinary  course  of  hand- 
ling is  to-  be  sought  in  the  escaping  ammonia;" 
and  (2)  That  "the  formation  of  free  nitrogen  is,  in  a 
very  subordinate  measure,  another  cause." 

Where  and  when  are  the  greatest  losses  of  nitro- 
gen encountered  ?  To  this  question  the  experiments 
of  Miintz  and  Girard*  give  rather  satisfactory  an- 
swers. The  great  loss  of  nitrogen  is  found  in  the 
ammonia  escaping  during  the  very  active  fermenta- 
tion beginning  immediately  after  evacuation.  Labo- 
ratory tests  with  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements 
separately,  show  that  in  the  liquid  excrements  the 
ammonia  fermentation  is  accomplished  with  great  in- 
tensity, and  all  of  the  nitrogen  changes  to  ammonia. 
The  solid  excrements,  however,  allow  only  small 
quantities  of  ammonia  to  be  formed.  As  the  greater 
quantity  of  the  nitrogen  in  excrements  is  found  in 
the  liquid  portion,  the  great  loss  of  nitrogen  in 
ammonia  fermentation  is  explained;  and,  furthermore, 
the  experiments  show  that  at  rather  low  tempera- 
tures, and  also  with  the  exclusion  of  all  ventila- 
tion, the  escaping  ammonia  may  be  considerable.  In 
the  stable,   the  conditions    for   ammonia    fermentations 

*  Auuales   Agrouuuiitjuus,    lsu:;,   xix.    No.    1,   p.   J. 


236  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

are  more  favorable  than  the  conditions  of  these  ex- 
periments were.  On  the  manure  pile,  the  conditions 
are  less  favorable  to  this  development  of  ammonia 
fermentation,  especially  with  good  packing  and  suffi- 
cient moisture,  when  only  the  top  layers  are  in- 
volved. 

On  the  top  of  the  manure  pile,  however,  reac- 
tions take  place  which  bring  about  the  escape  of 
free  nitrogren.  Here  is  where  the  process  of  nitri- 
fication begins,  and,  under  certain  conditions,  de- 
velops great  strength.  Holdefleiss  calculates  the  loss 
of  nitrogen  from  the  manure  produced  by  cattle, 
in  one  year,  to  be  16.8  kilograms  (36.9  pounds), 
and  found  that  23.4  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen 
in  the  manure,  when  placed  on  the  manure  pile, 
had   escaped. 

How  can  the  losses  in  the  stable  and  on  the 
manure  pile  be  reduced  to  a  minimum!  The  means 
which  the  author  discusses  are  both  mechanical  and 
chemical,  and  these  now  follow: 

Straw. — In  an  experiment  with  sheep  bedded  with 
a  very  large  amount  of  straw,  Miintz  and  Girard 
found  that  but  40  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken 
in  as  food  was  lost,  while  without  straw  the  loss  was 
59  per  cent.  When  but  an  ordinary  amount  of 
straw  was  used,  the  loss  was  50.2  per  cent.  Straw 
is  thus  seen  to  have  a  certain  although  not  very 
marked  influence  in  the  conservation  of  nitrogen. 

Muck  was  compared  with  straw  in  an  experiment 
with  horses.  The  former  showed  a  loss  of  44.087 
kilograms    (96.991    pounds)     of    nitrogen,    while    the 


Mechanical    Conserving   Agents.  237 

latter  showed  a  loss  of  58.043  kilograms  (127.694 
pounds). 

Earth. — With  a  sandy  earth,  properly  prepared 
(dried  in  the  air  and  passed  through  a  1.5  cm. 
[.59  inches]  mesh),  the  experiment  was  made  with 
sheep  and  compared  with  the  results  with  straw. 
It  was  found  that  with  earth  the  loss  of  nitrogen 
taken  in  the  food  was  25.7  per  cent,  while  that  with 
straw  (as  before  noted)  was  50.2  per  cent. 

The  comparative  efficiency  of  such  materials  when 
tested  for  their  power  of  mechanically  absorbing 
volatile  ammonium  carbonate  ([NH4]2C03)  resulted 
per  kilogram  of  substance  as  follows: 

Garden  soil 5.38  grams  taken  up. 

Heath      "   6.60      " 

Moss  muck 8.63      "  "       " 

Peat  mold 11.03      " 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  humus  soils  and  moss 
preparations  are  of  great  importance. 

In  addition  to  these  experiments,  Miintz  and 
Girard  tested  in  the  laboratory  the  efficiency  of  an 
earth  covering  over  fresh  manure  as  a  preventive 
of  ammonia  losses.  The  experiment  excluded  all 
ventilation.  Under  glass  was  placed  fresh  cow  and 
sheep  manure,  3  kilograms  (6.6  pounds)  of  each,  and 
in  each  case  one  sample  was  covered  2  cm.  (.78 
inch)  deep  with  earth,  while  the  other  was  left 
uncovered.  The  ammonia  developed  during  the  four 
months  of  the  experiment  was  fixed  in  standardized 
sulfuric  acid.  The  uncovered  cow  manure  showed 
that  142  milligrams   (2.1868  grains)  of   ammonia   had 


238  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

escaped,  while  the  uncovered  sheep  manure  showed 
1,642  milligrams  (25.2868  grains).  The  covered  cow 
manure  showed  that  10  milligrams  (.154  grains)  of 
ammonia  had  escaped,  and  the  covered  sheep  ma- 
nure showed  128  milligrams  (1.9712  grains).  This 
experiment  shows  how  an  insignificant  covering  of 
earth  can  prevent  the  loss  of  ammonia.  Miintz 
and  Girard  advise  the  farmer  not  to  sell  his  straw, 
and  in  lieu  procure  muck,  etc.,  for  use  in  the 
stable  and  on  the  manure  pile,  but  to  use  the 
straw,  and  make  judicious  use  of  the  powers  of  the 
other  materials. 

Lime. — The  use  of  lime  was  found  by  Miintz  and 
Girard   to   accelerate    the    ammonia   fermentation. 

Thomas  slag. —  Holdefleiss  found  that  the  use  of 
Thomas  slag  had  the  same  effect  as  the  use  of  lime, 
due,  in  all  probability,  to  the  not  insignificant  quan- 
tity  of  lime   in  the  slag. 

Sulfate  of  iron  (copperas). — Miintz  and  Girard 
found  that  on  the  addition  of  this  sulfate  of  iron, 
a  combination  was  formed,  resulting  finally  in  the 
production  of  ammonium  sulfate  ([NHJ^SOJ,  a 
non- volatile  product.  It  was  not,  however,  men- 
tioned by  Miintz  and  Girard  that  the  large  quantity 
of  iron  freed  in  the  production  of  this  ammonium 
sulfate  could  bring  about  the  insolubility  of  the 
phosphoric    acid  in  the  manure. 

Gypsum  (plaster). — This  material  acts  in  the  man- 
ner of  sulfate  of  iron  in  that  it  causes  to  be  pro- 
duced ammonium  sulfate  ([NH4]aS04)  and  calcium 
carbonate     (CaC03).        But    these     reactions    are    not 


Chemical   Conserving  Agents.  239 

carried  to  the  end.  The  calcium  carbonate  (CaC03) 
in  turn  changes  the  ammonium  sulfate  ( [NH4]2S04). 
In  all  such  cases  where  gypsum  was  used,  all  salts 
possible  from  the  elements  involved  were  produced, 
namely,  calcium  sulfate  (CaSOJ,  ammonium  sulfate 
([NH4]aS04),  calcium  carbonate  (CaC03)  and  am- 
monium carbonate  ( [NH4],C03) .  The  last  mentioned 
salt  always  retains  its  volatile  nature,  and  when 
allowed  to  escape  was  continually  formed. 

Kainit  (sodium  and  potassium  chlorides). — Kainit 
is  supposed  by  Miintz  and  Girard  to  have  the  same 
influence  on  ammonium  carbonate  ([NH4]2C03)  as 
gypsum  does,  on  account  of  the  magnesium  it  con- 
tains. Immendorff  does  not  agree  with  this,  and 
thinks  the  ammonium  and  magnesium  salts  readily 
form  double  salts,  by  which  a  Weakening  of  the  ten- 
sion of  the  ammonium  carbonate  ([NH4]»C03)  sets 
in.  The  possibility  of  the  fixation  of  some  ammo- 
nium in  the  production  of  ammonium  and  magne- 
sium phosphates  is  allowed  by  Miintz  and  Girard. 
One  very  important  property  of  kainit  is  not  men- 
tioned by  these  authors.  It  is  the  property  of  this 
salt  to  retard  fermentations,  and,  strewn  in  proper 
quantities  in  the  stable,  where  the  loss  is  greatest, 
it  will  allow  but  little  fermentation. 

Superphosphate. — This  substance,  containing  small 
quantities  of  free  phosphoric  and  sulfuric  acids, 
acts  directly  on  ammonia  through  these  acids  in  fix- 
ing it,  and  indirectly  through  the  gypsum  it  eon- 
tains.  This  latter  action  has  already  been  explained. 
In    Germany    the    most    valuable    chemical    conserving 


240  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

materials    are   considered    to   be  superphosphates,  rich 
in  free  phosphoric  acid,  and  kainit. 

Experiments  in  the  laboratory  were  conducted 
witn  three  samples  each  of  cow  and  sheep  manures, 
the  same  amount  in  each  case.  To  one  sample  noth- 
ing was  added,  to  another  sulfate  of  iron,  and  to 
the  third  gypsum.  The  six  samples,  placed  in  closed 
vessels,  were  allowed  to  ferment  from  May  27  to 
October  8,  1883,  and  the  ammonia  formed  was  fixed 
in  standardized  sulfuric  acid  and  determined,  with 
the  following  results: 

Cow  manure,  Sheep  manure, 

loss  of  nitrogen,  loss  of  nitrogen. 

grams.  grams. 

With  nothing 142  1.642 

"      sulfate  of  iron  (copperas) 085  1.092 

"  "        "  lime  (gypsum) 052  .409 

A  second  experiment  was  conducted  under  simi- 
lar  conditions : 

Escaped  ammonia,  in  grams. 
6  days.    12  days.    21  days.     31  days.    St  days. 
200  c.  cm.  cow  urine, 

nothing  added 121         .333  .661  .950         1.350 

200  c.  cm.  cow  urine, 

with  2  g.  gypsun..    .072         .165  .349  .576  .895 

The  experiment  shows  that  gypsum  has  a  conserv- 
ing effect,  but  cannot  by  any  means  conserve  all 
the  ammonia.  Air  currents  were  not  used  in  either 
experiment. 

Experiments  in  the  sheep  stable  were  conducted 
with  sulfate  of  iron  in  small  quantities.  Twenty 
young  sheep  were  bedded  during  21  days    on   30  kilo- 


Experiments   with    Sheep.  241 

grams  (66  pounds)  of  straw,  which  from  time  to  time 
was  strewn  with  sulfate  of  iron.  During  the  whole 
of  the  experiment,  6  kilograms  (13.2  pounds)  of  sul- 
fate of  iron  were  used,  or  15  grams  (.52  ounces)  per 
animal  per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of  48.5 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food. 
In  previous  experiments,  to  determine  the  proportion 
of  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  stable  to  that  contained 
in  the  food,  the  losses  were  not  greater  than  in 
this  experiment,  showing  that  the  sulfate  of  iron  in 
small  quantity  had  not  the  power  to  reduce  this 
loss. 

The  same  kind  of  experiments  were  conducted 
with  sheep,  using  gypsum.  Twenty  young  sheep 
were  used  for  21  days,  on  30  kilograms  (66  pounds) 
of  straw,  and  every  4  or  5  days  gypsum  was  strewn 
about.  The  total  gypsum  used  was  12  kilograms 
(26.4  pounds),  or  30  grams  (1.04  ounces)  per  animal 
per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of  46.1  per 
cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food.  In 
a  second  experiment  the  gypsum  was  increased. 
Ten  sheep  were  used  for  21  days  on  40  kilograms 
(88  pounds)  of  straw.  One  kilogram  (2.2  pounds)  of 
gypsum  was  used  daily,  or  100  grams  (3.52  ounces) 
per  animal  per  day.  The  result  showed  a  loss  of 
33.9  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  taken  in  with  the  food. 
Previous  experiments,  with  no  covering  material  other 
than  straw,  showed  a  loss  of  55.3  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen  in  the  food.  It  is  seen  that  the  larger 
quantity  of  gypsum  prevented  much  ammonia  from 
escaping. 


242  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

The  cause  of  the  slight  effect  of  small  quantities 
of  these  chemical  nitrogen  -conservers,  and  especially 
of  the  sulfate  of  iron,  has  been  thoroughly  set  forth 
by  Miintz  and  Girard.  Fresh  manures  from  herbivo- 
rous animals  possess  a  very  high  alkalinity,  due,  in 
general,  to  the  large  quantities  of  double  potassium 
carbonate  in  the  urine  and  the  rather  large  quantity 
of  calcium  carbonate  in  the  solid  excrements.  This 
alkaline  reaction  of  the  excrements  is  one  of  the 
causes  retarding  the  action  of  chemical  conserving 
agents.  It  is  to  be  regarded,  say  Miintz  and  Girard, 
that  according  to  well  known  reactions,  sulfate  of 
iron,  gypsum,  kainit,  superphosphates,  etc.,  must  neu- 
tralize the  fixed  bases,  which  are  in  the  manure  in  the 
form  of  carbonates,  before  they  are  able  to  bind  the 
ammonia.  The  alkalinity  of  various  excrements  was 
determined  by  the  amount  of  sulfuric  acid  which 
one  kilogram  (2.2  pounds)  of  the  excrements  in 
question   would  neutralize,  and  resulted  as  follows: 

Grams.        Av.  of  de- 
terminations. 

Horse  manure  ( solid  and  liquid ) 1.35  4 

Cow  and  oxen  manure  (solid  and  liquid) 3.64  7 

Sheep  manure  (solid  and  liquid) 4.29  4 

Hog  manure  (solid  and  liquid) 2.02  2 

In  another  experiment,  comparing  the  alkalinity  of 
the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  separately,  on  the 
same  basis  as  above,  the  following  results  were  ob- 
tained : 

Urine,  grams.  Dung, 

Horse 3.4         seemingly  neutral . 

Cow 6.8  2.59 

Sheep 14.20  1.88 


Economics   of  Conserving   Material.  243 

Miintz  and  Girard  consider  that  the  property  of 
sulfate  of  iron  in  holding  ammonia  is  proportional  to 
the  amount  of  the  sulfuric  acid  it  contains,  or  about 
25  per  cent  of  its  weight.  They  then  calculated  the 
following  table: 


Amount  of  Are.  loss  of  Sulfate        of  Sulfate    of  Total  sulfate 
Weight  of                 manure  in  ammonia  iron  to  com-  iron       to  of  iron  nee- 
Manure,         animal                       ">S-    PTO'  in  stable, in  bine     with  neutralize  essary,      in 
duced    in  lbs.  ammonia,  alkalinity,  lbs 
i  year  in  lbs.  in  lbs. 


28.38 

324.28 

121.44 

445.72 

101.64 

1,161.60 

365.86 

1,527.46 

15.18 

173.36 

30.14 

203.50 

Horse  (1,210  lbs.)....     22,400 

Cow  (1,320  lbs.) 25,080 

Sheep  (99  lbs.)  1,760 

The  enormous  quantities  of  sulfate  of  iron  are  the 
minima  necessary  to  hold  all  the  ammonia,  and,  in 
practice,  still  larger  quantities  would  certainly  be  nec- 
essary to  arrive  at  the  desired  results.  The  price  of 
this  sulfate  of  iron  would  be  almost  two -thirds  of 
the  value  of  the  conserved  nitrogen. 

The  authors  think  that  the  same  results  would  be 
had  with  kainit.  Both  substances  would,  by  the  fact 
that  the  alkalinity  of  the  manure  is  destroyed,  hin- 
der the  rotting  of  the  manure,  and  thus  cause  a 
lessening  of  its  value. 

With  the  data  from  their  experiments,  Miintz  and 
Girard  come  to  the  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  chemical  nitrogen -conserving  agents,  that  "on  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  fixed  bases,  too  large  quan- 
tities of  such  agents  must  be  used,  so  that  the  good 
to  be  derived  from  their  action  is  in  a  large  measure 
lost." 

With  superphosphate,  Miintz  and  Girard  did  not 
experiment   in   this   way,    and    Immendorff    is   of    the 


244  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

opinion  that  since  much  smaller  quantities  of  this 
are  necessary,  at  the  present  prices  it  may  be  used 
to  advantage  under  certain  conditions,  either  alone 
or  with  kainit  or  other  potash  salts,  as  these  latter 
are   supposed   to   retard   ammoniacal   fermentation. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  in  Immendorff's 
paper,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that,  all  things  con- 
sidered, nothing  better  than  dry  earth  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  humus  has  yet  been  found  for 
conserving  nitrogen  in  the  stable  and  in  the  ma- 
nure heap.  While  gypsum,  is  valuable  for  this  pur- 
pose, there  are  many  localities  where  it  cannot  be 
easily  procured,  and  in  any  case,  its  first  cost  is  con- 
siderable, while  humus  and  earth  are  abundant  on 
most  farms,  and  can  always  be  secured  and  stored  for 
use  at  a  nominal  cost.  It  is  gratifying  to  know  that 
the  farmer  has  always  at  hand  the  means  of  pre- 
venting largely  the  loss  of  nitrogen  in  barn  manures, 
means  which  have  heretofore  been  left  almost  en- 
tirely unused,  although  the  value  of  the  dry -earth 
closet  as  a  sanitary  agent  is  well  known  to  tidy 
farmers. 

EXPLANATION    OF    NITRIFICATION.* 

Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrate  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  best  kind  of  nitrogen -food  for  plants. 
Nitrates  are  compounds  of  nitric  acid  with  metals 
or  bases,  as  potassium  nitrate  (KN03),  sodium  nitrate 


*By  George  W.  Cavanaugh,  Assistant  Chemist  in  the  Cornell  Experiment 
Station. 


What   are   Nitrates  t  245 

(NaX03),  calcium  nitrate  (Ca[N03]a)  and  ammon- 
ium nitrate  (NH4N03).  Plants  obtain  their  nitric 
acid  by  absorbing  (1)  the  nitrates  that  are  already 
present  in  the  soil;  (2)  those  that  are  carried  down 
to  the  soil  from  the  air  in  rain  and  snow;  (3) 
those  that  are  applied  artificially  in  fertilizers,  and 
(4)  those  that  are  formed  in  the  soil  from  the  nitro- 
gen of  other  substances.  As  is  well  known,  all  of 
the  nitrogen  that  is  applied  to  the  soil  for  fertil- 
izing purposes,  especially  in  barn  manures  and  green 
cover  crops,  is  not  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  It  may 
be  either  in  the  form  of  ammonia  (NH3),  or  of 
more  complex  organic  compounds.  It  is  very  prob- 
able, however,  that  before  it  is  taken  up  by  the 
plant,  the  organic  nitrogen  is  changed  first  into  the 
form  of  ammonia  (NH3),  and  then  into  nitric  acid 
(HN03).  These  changes  all  take  place  through  the 
agency  of  micro-organisms  or  ferments,  and  that 
particular  process  in  which  the  nitrogen  of  the  am- 
monia is  changed  into  nitric  acid  is  called  nitrifica- 
tion. This  change  is  accomplished  by  the  joint 
action  of  two  separate  organisms,  one  of  which 
changes  the  nitrogen  of  ammonia  into  nitrous  acid 
(HNOa),  while  the  other  changes  the  nitrous  acid 
into  nitric  acid  (HN03).  Perhaps  a  clearer  idea  may 
be  obtained  if  nitrification  be  considered  as  a  process 
somewhat  comparable  to  the  fermentation  by  yeast.* 
In  the  case  of  the  yeast,  part  of  the  carbon  of  the 
sugar   is    liberated    as   carbonic    acid    gas,    or    carbon 

*  This  comparison  is  given  only  to  emphasize  the  fact  to  tne  general  reader 
that  nitrification  is  a  biological  process. 


246  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

dioxid    (C09),   while   the  nitrifying    organisms  change 
the  nitrogen  of  ammonia  into  nitric  acid  (HN03). 

The  conditions  that  are  required  for  the  devel- 
opment of  nitrifying  organisms  are  the  presence  of 
certain  food  constituents,  heat,  moisture,  oxygen,  and 
some  base  to  neutralize  the  nitric  acid  as  it  is 
formed.  It  is  also  necessary  that  the  soil  be  slightly 
alkaline,  but  too  much  alkali  retards  the  process. 
The  nitrifying  organisms  require  certain  substances 
as  food,  among  which  phosphoric  acid  is  most  impor- 
tant. It  has  been  found  that  without  phosphoric 
acid  there  can  be  no  nitrification.  This  may  be  one 
of  the  reasons  why  phosphates  show  beneficial  re- 
sults when  applied  to  some  soils,  as  well  as  furnish- 
ing plant -food  directly.  The  three  conditions  which 
exert  a  marked  influence  on  nitrification,  and  which 
in  agricultural  practice  are  more  or  less  intimately 
associated,  are  heat,  air,  and  moisture.  The  process 
is  most  rapid  during  warm  weather,  in  presence  of 
sufficient  air  and  moisture.  Here,  then,  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  thorough  tillage  is  essential.  The 
loosening  and  pulverizing  of  the  soil  allows  the 
admission  of  the  necessary  oxygen,  and  regulates 
the  supply  of  moisture.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry,  or 
is  flooded  with  water  to  the  exclusion  of  air,  nitrifi- 
cation is  retarded,  and  may  be  permanently  stopped. 
In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in 
pasture  lands,  which  receive  no  tillage,  and,  conse- 
quently, are  more  impervious  to  air  than  cultivated 
fields,  nitrites,  or  compounds  of  nitrous  acid,  are 
more  abundant  than  nitrates. 


Lime   and   Nitrification.  247 

The  final  product  of  nitrification  is  nitric  acid. 
But  the  nitrifying  organisms  cannot  develop  in  the 
presence  of  a  free  acid;  hence  the  benefit  of  liming 
sour  soils.  The  lime  corrects  the  sourness  of  the 
soil  by  neutralizing  the  free  acid,  and  then  if  the 
other  conditions  of  heat,  oxygen,  moisture  and  food 
are  favorable,  nitrification  may  proceed.  There  must 
be  an  excess  of  lime  applied  over  and  above  the 
amount  necessary  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the  soil, 
to  neutralize  the  nitric  acid  as  it  is  formed.  When 
the  lime  combines  with  nitric  acid,  the  reaction  can 
be  expressed  by  the  following  equation: 

CaC03  +  2HN03  =  Ca(N03)a  4  CO,  +  HaO. 

One  part  of  calcium  carbonate  (CaC03)  reacts 
with  two  parts  of  nitric  acid  (HN03)  to  form  one 
part  of  calcium  nitrate  (Ca[N03]2),  one  part  of 
carbon  dioxid  (C02)  and  one  part  of  water  (HaO). 
In  this  equation  mild  lime  (calcium  carbonate, 
CaC03)  is  used,  because  this  is  the  form  of  lime 
most  favorable  for  promoting  nitrification.  When 
caustic  or  hydrated  lime  (Ca[OH]») — that  is,  water- 
slaked  lime  —  is  applied  to  soils,  it  may  act  ener- 
getically, tending  to  decompose  and  render  available 
the  insoluble  compounds  of  potash.  True,  the  caustic 
lime  may  have  at  first  a  retarding  effect  on  nitri- 
fication by  renderiug  the  soil  too  alkaline,  but  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere  soon  converts  it  into  mild 
or  air-slaked  lime  (CaC03),  when  it  is  in  its  best 
form  for  promoting  nitrification. 


248  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Whenever  the  soil  is  in  a  condition  unfavorable 
to  nitrification,  there  is  danger  that  not  only  may 
nitrates  not  be  formed,  but  that  there  will  be  a  loss 
of  nitrogen  from  those  nitrates  that  may  be  present. 
This  loss  is  due  to  a  process  known  as  denitrifi- 
cation,  which  is  also  dependent  on  micro-organisms. 
The  denitrifying  organisms  flourish  under  one  con- 
dition which  is  directly  opposed  to  the  corresponding 
condition  favoring  nitrification, — namely,  the  absence 
of  oxygen.  Under  that  condition  the  nitrates  may 
be  reduced  or  changed  back  to  nitrites,  and  the 
nitrites  are  often  further  reduced  till  they  lose  their 
nitrogen  by  having  it  pass  off  into  the  air  as  gaseous 
nitrogen . 

Denitrification  may  take  place,  therefore,  in  water- 
logged soils  and  in  the  inner  parts  of  manure 
piles,*  where  air  is  measurably  excluded. 

The  organisms  found  in  the  tubercles  on  the 
roots  of  clovers  and  other  legumes  are  not  the  or- 
ganisms that  produce  nitric  acid.  Their  office  is  to 
fix  or  seize  upon  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 


*This  subject  is  discussed    from    the    horticultural    standpoint    in    Bailey  s 
Forcing-Book,  p.  62. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE   PHOSPHORIC   ACID   AND   POTASH  SUPPLY. 

Thk  amounts  and  availability  of  these  two  mineral 
elements  of  plant  life  vary  greatly  in  soils.  It  is 
evident  that  the  lands  from  which  crops  have  been 
harvested  for  a  series  of  years,  and  those  which 
have  been  devoted  to  pasturage,  must  contain  less 
of  these  minerals  than  they  did  when  first  reclaimed 
from  a  state  of  nature,  and  this  is  true  even  when 
the  most  painstaking  effort  has  been  made  to  return 
to  the  land  the  refuse  material  and  manures  result- 
ing from  crops  and  animals,  for  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  return  all  that  had  been  removed,  since 
there  would  be  no  object  in  harvesting  crops  or 
keeping  animals  unless  their  edible  or  commercial 
parts  were  used  or  sold.  Therefore,  no  matter  how 
economically  the  native  supply  of  these  elements  has 
been  conserved,  or  how  skilfully  the  elements  have 
been  made  gradually  available,  the  time  must  come, 
sooner  or  later,  when  the  native  supply  will  be  so 
diminished  as  to  require  additions  from  outside 
sources,  if  full  crops  are  to  be  maintained. 

HUSBANDING    THE    MINERAL     PLANT -FOODS. 

The  problem  which  should  first  arrest  the  atten- 
tion   of    the    husbandman    is.  how    much    phosphoric 

(249) 


250  The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 

acid  and  potash  must  be  carried  in  the  soil,  and 
how  much  may  be  taken  out  without  reducing  the 
reserve  below  the  profitable  standard.  And  it  re- 
quires no  little  skill  to  solve  this  problem.  This 
is  followed  by  a  question  equally  difficult:  How  best 
to  make  available,  and  when  once  available,  how  to 
capture  and  hold  the  mineral  matter  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  remove.  Shall  drain  tiles,  or  plants  which 
are  able  to  thrive  on  "tough"  food  and  to  transform 
it  into  that  which  is  "tender,"  or  better  implements 
of  tillage,  one  or  all,  be  used  to  force  the  harvests 
from  the  "face -sweating,  stubborn  glebe?" 

How  far  shall  we  go  in  our  endeavors  to  make  the 
dormant  minerals  soluble  ?  If  they  are  made  soluble 
by  tillage  and  other  means,  they  pass  but  a  short 
way  into  the  soil  before  they  unite  with  bases,  and 
again  become  insoluble.  Shall  the  effort  be  to  pro- 
ceed only  so  far  with  tillage  as  will  give  the  plant 
opportunity  to  set  free  its  own  mineral  food  by  the 
action  of  its  roots;  that  is,  make  the  material  in 
the  soil  available?  The  question  is  not  answered 
when  we  dodge  behind  the  word  "available,"  for  how- 
ever available  the  food  may  be,  if  there  are  not  suit- 
able roots  and  rootlets,  or  enough  of  them,  to  take 
advantage  of  the  food  prepared,  or  if  the  rootlets 
are  not  made  comfortable,  the  full  power  of  the  soil 
cannot  enter  into  the  plant. 

Most  soils  carry  vast  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  (see  Tables  I.  and  II.),  much  of  which, 
under  careless  or  even  ordinary  tillage,  appear  to  be 
nearly  or  entirely  useless.       If   the  tables   in   the   last 


Meager    Yields   of  Crops.  251 

Census  Report  are  scanned,  it  will  be  seen  that 
either  the  soil  in  the  United  States  is  carrying  but 
little  available  plant -food,  or  that  the  skill  has  not 
been  acquired  to  make  the  stores  available.  An  in- 
spection of  the  fields,  and  also  of  the  tables  which 
give  the  numerous  analyses  of  soils  made  in  this 
country,  compel  the  conclusion  that  the  meager  aver- 
age yield  of  crops  is  not  due,  in  a  majority  of 
cases,  to  a  lack  of  mineral  constituents  in  the  soil, 
nor  to  any  unusual  combination  with  bases  which 
might  cause  them  to  be  so  firmly  held  as  to  make 
their  liberation  extremely  difficult. 

Most  of  the  land  in  the  United  States  has  been 
under  cultivation  less  than  one  hundred  years, — 
extended  areas  less  than  fifty  years;  yet  the  culti- 
vation of  some  of  the  more  exacting  crops,  as 
wheat,  has  been  abandoned  in  many  localities  because 
the  available  supply  of  plant-food  in  the  soil  under 
present  methods  of  tillage  is  less  than  is  required 
for  a  profitable  yield.  In  some  localities,  wheat 
growing  has  been  abandoned  because  the  production 
of  garden  crops  or  milk  and  fruit  is  found  to  be 
more  remunerative  than  the  growing  of  cereals. 
The  average  production  per  acre  of  some  of  the 
crops  substituted  for  wheat  is  so  small, —  potatoes 
for  instance,  —  (the  average  yield  in  New  York,  1889, 
was  68.8  bushels  per  acre),  that  it  is  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  the  land,  after  less  than  a  century's  use, 
is  seriously  depleted  of  its  life-giving  elements,  or 
that  villainous  methods  of  tillage  and  plant  protection 
have   been    and    are    in    vogue.       There    is    abundant 


252  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

evidence  to  prove  that  the  fault  lies  more  largely 
with  the  tiller  of  the  soil  than  with  the  soil  itself. 

For  a  supply  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  plants, 
both  home  and  commercial  sources  are  open.  The 
home  supply  is  found  in  the  soil  and  the  refuse 
material  of  the  farm,  which  latter  may  be  augmented 
by  purchased  animal -foods.  Stress  should  first  be 
laid  on  conserving  the  mineral  elements  which  have 
once  entered  into  organic  substances,  for  such  matter, 
having  once  entered  into  plant  and  animal  life,  is 
easily  broken  down  and  made  available  for  succeeding 
life;  or,  in  other  words,  mineral  matter  which  has 
recently  been  made  available  and  used  by  plants 
may  be  made  re -available  more  easily  than  that  which 
has  never  been  used. 

The  next  thought  is  to  tickle  the  soil  with  tillage, 
and  see  if  it  will  laugh  with  fatness;  if  it  does 
not,  apply  something  which  will  awaken  it  more 
effectually.  If  by  the  use  of  comparatively  cheap 
substances,  as  lime  and  gypsum,  the  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  can  be  ousted  and  made  available  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  be  bought  for  the  land,  then 
these  cheap  substances  should  be  used,  for  they 
usually  not  only  set  free  plant -food,  but  also  improve 
the  physical  character  of  the  soil,  and  sometimes 
serve  as  regulators  of  soil  moisture. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  manifestly  im- 
possible for  every  farmer  to  have  the  soil  of  even 
a  single  field  analyzed;  much  less  can  he  have  a 
chemical  determination  made  of  all  the  fields,  or 
portions   of   fields,  of   the  farm,  and    even    could   this 


Farming   Like    Religion.  253 

be  accomplished,  the  difficult  problem  of  productivity 
would  be  only  partially  solved.  The  difficulties 
met  every  day  in  every  field  can  best  be  overcome 
by  increasing  the  farmer's  powers  of  observation, 
by  developing  his  judgment  and  by  supplying  him 
with  clear-cut  scientific  facts,  that  he  may  have  a 
basis  for  drawing  correct  conclusions  from  what  he 
observes.  In  farming,  as  in  religion,  salvation  is 
worked  out  through  personal  effort,  illumined  by 
knowledge,  and  directed  according  to  the  laws  or 
modes  of  action  which  govern  the  subject  inves- 
tigated. 

Since  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  leach  out  of 
good  soils  in  only  extremely  small  quantities,  it 
would  seem  at  first  thought  that  the  presence  of  a 
living  plant  would  not  be  necessary  to  conserve  them, 
as  in  the  case  of  nitrogen  ;  but  if  these  minerals 
have  been  made  available  by  tillage  or  by  amend- 
ments to  the  land,  and  if  they  are  not  used,  they 
tend  to  become  unavailable  again  as  time  passes. 
True,  while  the  natural  forces  are  tending  to  lock 
up  some  of  the  mineral  plant -food  which  has  been 
made  easily  available,  other  forces  may  be  liberat- 
ing plant -food  which  before  such  action  was  un- 
available. For  instance,  the  natural  forces  are  con- 
stantly active  in  breaking  down  rock,  sand  and 
organic  matter,  and  they  are  equally  active  in  con- 
serving or  locking  up  any  of  the  mineral  constitu- 
ents which  have  been  made  soluble.  Since  plant 
roots  set  free  or  make  soluble  the  available  min- 
erals,   cover   crops    should    be    used    extensively,    not 


254  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

only  for  covering  and  shading  the  land,  but  for 
their  value  in  setting  free  the  mineral  constituents 
of  the  soil.  Where  practicable,  tap -rooted  plants 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  since  they  are  not 
only  as  active  in  liberating  plant -food  as  fibrous- 
rooted  ones  are,  if  not  more  so,  but  they  also  bring 
food  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface,  where  the  more 
exacting  fibrous -rooted  plants  may  use  it.  Tap- 
rooted  plants  also  tend  to  improve  the  sub -drainage 
of  tenacious  soils,  and  to  make  them  more  friable 
by  opening  up  channels  for  the  passage  of  air  and 
water  downward  and  moisture  upward,  when  their 
roots   have  decayed. 

Lime  may  not  only  change  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  soil  for  the  better  in  several  charac- 
teristic ways,  but  it  may  also  act  in  such  chemical 
ways  as  to  make  dormant  phosphorus  and  potash 
available.  Salt  and  some  other  substances  may  also 
act   in    similar   ways.     (See    Chapter   XIII.) 

A  quarter  of  a  century  since,  gypsum  was  largely 
used  in  the  central  states  with  marked  beneficial 
results.  In  later  years  its  use  has  decreased,  because 
there  is  less  potash  in  the  soil.  Farmers  have  taken 
the  potash  from  the  soil,  and  have  then  blamed  the 
gypsum,  instead  of  taking  themselves  to  task  for 
not   returning  some  of   the  potash. 

The  characteristic  action  of  gypsum  as  a  lib- 
erator of  plant -food  is  briefly  and  clearly  stated 
by  Aikman.*  "The  true  explanation  of  the  action 
of    gypsum    is    to    be    found    in    its   effect    on    the 

*  Manures  and  Manuring,  463. 


Lime,  Oypsum,  Drains,  Moisture.  255 

double  silicates,  which  it  decomposes,  the  potash  be- 
ing set  free.  Its  action  is  similar  to  that  of  other 
lime  compounds,  only  more  characteristic.  As  a 
manure,  therefore,  its  action  is  indirect,  and  its  true 
function  is  to  oust  the  potash  from  its  compounds. 
Its  peculiarly  favorable  action  on  clover  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  clover  specially  benefits  by  potash, 
and  that  adding  gypsum  practically  amounts  to  add- 
ing potash.  Of  course,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  soil  must  contain  potash  compounds,  if 
gypsum  is  to  have  its  full  effect.  Now,  however, 
that  potash  salts  suitable  for  manuring  purposes  are 
abundant,  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  it  is  not 
better  to  apply  potash  directly.  Further,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  gypsum  is  applied  to  the  soil 
whenever  it  receives  a  dressing  of  superphosphate  of 
lime,  as  gypsum  is  one  of  the  products  formed  by 
treating  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime  with  sulfuric 
acid." 

He  who  utilizes,  as  conditions  will  permit,  lime, 
gypsum,  salt,  plants,  drains,  manures  and  extra  till- 
age, may  still  find  that  the  land  is  not  as  fruitful  as 
it  should  be,  because  of  insufficient  mineral  matter. 
Unsatisfactory  results  may  be,  and  in  a  large  major- 
ity of  cases  are,  due  to  a  lack  of  full  and  continu- 
ous supply  of  moisture,  and  this  being  so,  it  would 
be  manifestly  unwise  to  purchase  plant -food,  when 
that  already  available  is  not  fully  utilized  for  lack  of 
ample  transportation  facilities.  In  all  cases,  pains 
should  be  taken  to  discover  just  what  is  lacking, — 
moisture  or  plant -food.     If   the    latter,   and   if   an  in- 


256  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

telligent  effort  has  been  made  to  utilize  the  natural 
and  home  resoures,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in 
purchasing  freely  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  Para- 
doxical as  it  may  appear,  those  farmers  who  make 
the  best  use  of  the  home  and  natural  supply  of  plant- 
food  are  the  ones  who  purchase  commercial  fertilizers 
most  freely  and  mostly  profitably. 

COMPARISON     OF    NATIVE    SOILS    WITH    THOSE    CULTI- 
VATED   FOR    SEVERAL    YEARS. 

The  following  quotations  are  taken  from  investi- 
gations made  by  Harry  Snyder,  chemist  of  the 
Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletins 
30  and  41.  These  publications  are  well  worth  a 
most  careful  perusal: 

"The  Red  River  Valley  native  soils,"  he  writes, 
"contain  from  .35  to  .40  of  a  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
while  the  soils  that  have  been  under  continuous 
cultivation  for  twelve  to  fifteen  years  contain  from 
.2  to  .3  of  a  per  cent." 

Presumably  the  cultivated  soils  had  been  tilled 
without  any  intervening  nitrogen  or  humus -produc- 
ing crops.  Allowing  that  an  acre  of  soil,  one  foot 
deep,  weighs  1,800  tons,*  the  native  soil  would  con- 
tain  from    12,600   to    14,400   pounds   of   nitrogen    per 


•The  assumed  weight  of  an  acre  of  soil  is  slightly  greater  than  the 
weights  reported  in  the  two  bulletins  above  named  (in  a  majority  of  cases), 
but  is  less  in  some  cases.  Most  plants  secure  some  of  their  food  from 
greater  depths  than  one  foot;  therefore,  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  and 
illustration,  the  assumed  weight  of  an  acre  of  soil  one  foot  deep  is  suffi- 
ciently correct. 


Squandering   of  Nitrogen.  257 

acre  of  native  soil  one  foot  deep,  while  the  culti- 
vated soil  would  contain  from  7,200  to  10,800 
pounds  per  acre.  If  the  average  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  the  native  soils  (13,500  pounds  per  acre),  and 
the  average  in  the  soil  after  it  had  been  cropped 
twelve  to  fifteen  years  (9,000  pounds  per  acre),  are 
compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  soil  has  lost  4,500 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  or  more  than  one-third  (possibly 
one -half)  of  the  nitrogen  which  could  well  be  made 
available. 

The  suicidal  practice  of  robbing  the  richest  of 
soils  by  continuous  production  of  wheat,  sold  at  from 
50  to  60  cents  a  bushel,  limits  the  occupancy  of. 
this  land  to  forty -five  years,  unless  radical  changes 
are  instituted.  Through  present  need  or  present 
greed,  the  American  is  squandering  his  valuable 
landed  estates  as  a  dissolute  son  squanders  his  in- 
heritance. Fifteen  crops  of  wheat  of  twenty -five 
bushels  per  acre  require  525  pounds  of  nitrogen,  or 
one -eighth  of  the  amount  which  the  soil  lost  during 
the  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  cropping.  This  soil 
has  been  so  badly  managed  that  it  has  lost  out- 
right nitrogen  sufficient  for  120  crops,  each  requir- 
ing as  much  nitrogen  as  a  crop  of  twenty -five 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  docs.  In  addition  to 
this,  all  of  the  525  pounds  of  nitrogen  carried  off 
by  the  wheat  was  sold  at  the  railway  station,  never 
to  return.  When  the  amount  lasted  on  a  single 
acre  is  multiplied  by  the  acres  of  the  vast  fertile 
wheat  plains  of  the  west,  the  loss  of  nitrogen  to 
our   country  is  seen    to    be   so   great    as    to  appall  the 


258  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

thoughtful  man  who  looks  forward  to  the  genera- 
tions who  will  want  this  element  in  the  not  distant 
future. 

"In  the  uncultivated  soils  there  is  usually  about 
"5  per  cent  of  humus,  while  in  the  cultivated  soils 
there  is  usually  less  than  3  per  cent.  The  humus 
is  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  the  important  building  ma- 
terial out  of  which  the  gluten  in  wheat  and  grains 
is  constructed;  and  when  the  humus  decreases  the 
nitrogen  decreases  as  well,  and  is  lost  from  the  soil. 

"The  effects  of  the  humus  on  the  capacity  of  the 
soil  to  retain  its  water  and  withstand  the  evil  effects 
of  drought  are  marked;  the  native  soils  will  retain 
about  20  per  cent  more  water  than  the  long  culti- 
vated soils,  and  will  not  dry  out  as  readily  during 
the  droughty  seasons  as  the  older  and  long  culti- 
vated soils.  Another  important  point:  when  the 
humus  is  taken  out  of  the  native  soils,  during  the 
process  of  analysis,  from  .06  to  .08  of  a  per  cent 
of  phosphoric  acid  is  soluble  and  associated  with  it; 
while  only  about  .02  of  a  per  cent  is  in  this  form 
with  the  long  cultivated  soils.  Phosphoric  acid  in 
this  form  is  very  valuable  as  plant -food.  There  is 
a  good  supply  of  phosphates  in  all  of  these  soils, 
but  we  must  keep  up  the  supply  of  humus  in  order 
to  keep  the  phosphates  available. 

"In  the  analyses  reported,  the  average  amount  of 
potash  is  given  as"  about  one -half  of  1  per  cent. 
This  is  not  the  total  potash  that  is  in  these  soils; 
in  fact  there  is  about  1%  of  a  per  cent  in  all,  but 
1%    per    cent,  or   over   two -thirds   of   the   total,  can- 


Unavailable   Potash.  259 

not  be  counted  upon  for  crop  purposes,  because  it 
is  combined  with  silica  (sand)  in  the  form  of  minute 
stony  particles,  that  require  the  strongest  chemicals 
and  the  highest  heat  that  can  be  procured  in  the 
laboratory  to  decompose  them." 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  great  value  of  humus 
resides  not  only  in  its  increasing  of  the  moisture- 
holding  capacity  of  the  land,  but  in  its  power  of  lib- 
erating phosphoric  acid.  While  the  land  contains  an 
unusual  supply  of  potash,  this  material  is  present  in 
such  forms  that  the  greater  part  of  it  cannot  be  made 
available  to  plants,  at  least  not  in  the  near  future. 


CHAPTER   XII. 


COM  MERC  I A  L    FER  TILIZERS. 


The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  has  increased  so 
rapidly  during  the  last  thirty -five  years  that  their 
manufacture,  sale  and  value  in  agriculture  have  be- 
come of  national  importance.  From  small  and  crude 
beginnings  prior  to  1860,  at  which  date  there  were 
but  forty -seven  small  fertilizer  establishments  in  the 
United  States,  with  an  output  valued  at  $891,344, 
the  establishments  had  increased,  by  1889,  to  390, 
and  the  value  of  the  output  to  $39,180,844  at 
wholesale.* 

STATISTICS   OF   FERTILIZERS. 


Establishments.. 
Hands  employed. 

Capital 

Wages 

Materials 

Products 


1870. 
1860.  1870.  Value  of  the  fertili- 

Industry     and  ;  Industry    and       zers  in  those  states 


wealth,  eighth 
census. 


47 

308 

$466,000 

95,016 

590,816 

891,344 


wealth,  ninth 
census. 


126 
2,501 

766,712 
3,808,025 
5,815,118 


which  manufac- 
tured more  than 
$500,000  worth. 


Penna.  $1,635,204 
N.J...  661.659 
Mass...  647,700 
Md 632,352 


♦United  States  Census  Report,  1890.    The  tables  set  forth  briefly  the  growth 
of  the  fertilizer  industry  by  decades  during  the  thirty  years  prior  to  1880. 

(260) 


Statistics   of  Fertilizers. 


261 


1880.  1890. 

Statistics  of  i  Manufactu'g 
manufact's  |  industri  e  s  , 
tenth  cen-  elev'th  cen- 
sus,Vol.  II.      sus,  Part  1. 


Value  of  the  fertilizers  in  those 
states  which  manufactured  more 
than  $500,000  worth. 


States. 


Establ'hm'ts 

3G4 

390 

Md 

$5,770,198 

$6,208,025 

Hands  emp'd 

8,598 

10,158 

N.  Y 

3.150.312 

3,498,291 

Capital  

$17,913,660 

$40,594,108 

s.c 

2.691,053 

4,417,658 

2,648,422 

4,671,831 

N.  J 

2,423,805 

4,319,088 

Material 

15,595,078 

25,113.874 

Mass 

2,164,680 

1,910,920 

Products 

23,650,795 

39,180.844 

Penna.  . . 
Ind 

1.433,245 
980,725 

2,957,316 

Ill 

729,400 

924,758 

Del 

675,250 

1,018.438 

Va 

624,300 

2,475,638 

Ohio 

531,540 

1,287,101 

Ga 

5.026,034 

N.  C 

994,135 

Ala 

765.000 

i  Mich 

753,585 

The  American  farmers  have  paid  out  for  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  during  the  last  thirty -six  years,  more 
than  eight  hundred  million  dollars,  an  amount  equal 
to  the  value  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United 
States  for  the  last  three  years.  The  question  natu- 
rally arises,  was  this  money,  in  part  or  as  a  whole, 
wisely  and  profitably  invested  ?  If  this  vast  amount 
is  expended  for  plant -food  before  the  arable  land 
has  been  under  cultivation  three -fourths  of  a  cen- 
tury, on  an  average,  and  when,  as  yet,  nineteen  states 
and  territories,  embracing  more  than  one -half  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  Union,  use  little  or  no  commercial 
fertilizers,  what  sum  will  suffice  for  purchasing  plant- 
food  when  all  the  arable  land  has  been  cropped 
for    two    or    three    hundred    vears  1       Will   our    nation 


262  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

die  in  time,  as  many  others  have  in  the  past,  be- 
cause the  land  will  fail  to  produce  sufficient  varieties 
and  quantities  of  first-class  foods  to  keep  the  whole 
population  on  a  highly  civilized  plane  ?  The  variety 
and  quality  of  the  foods  used  by  a  people  will  in 
time  determine,  more  than  any  other  one  thing,  the 
height  of  civilization  or  the  depth  of  semi -bar- 
barism which  the  nation  will  reach.  When  we  con- 
sider the  rise  and  fall  of  nations  in  the  past,  and 
look  upon  the  abject  poverty,  the  hunger  and  suffer- 
ing, the  lack  of  a  competence  and  leisure,  and  the 
utter  dearth  of  innocent  luxuries  which  fall  to  the 
lot  of  more  than  one -half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Old  World,  we  naturally  seek  for  the  cause  or  causes 
which  have  produced  these  conditions.  The  elements 
of  food,  clothing  and  a  competence  are  found  pri- 
marily in  the  soil;  if  these  elements  remain  inert,  or 
are  depleted  through  ignorance  or  carelessness,  no 
abiding  prosperity  can  be  expected. 

Is  this  favored  nation  to  follow  in  the  footsteps 
of  many  others,  and  shall  we  look  on  with  stoical 
indifference  while  the  fertile  valleys,  the  extended 
plains  and  the  wood -clad  foot-hills  are  slowly  but 
surely  being  transformed  into  eroded,  semi -barren 
and  weed -covered  wastes?  Are  the  forty  to  sixty 
millions  of  dollars  now  paid  out  annually  for  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  after  less  than  seventy-five  years' 
occupancy  of  the  land,  an  indication  of  advance- 
ment or  retrogression  ?  How  much  of  the  fer- 
tilizer used  is  applied  to  badly  tilled  land  which, 
under  good  tillage,  would  produce   satisfactorily  with- 


Civilization   and   Productivity.  263 

out  fertilizers  ?  Has  the  expenditure  of  forty  rail- 
lions  of  dollars  yearly  for  commercial  fertilizers  by 
some  twenty  states  noticeably  increased  the  average 
yield  in  these  states,  or  only  served  to  keep  it  from 
falling  below  the  average  of  early  years  ?  In  what 
direction  does  the  road  which  the  American  farmer 
is  now  traveling  lead,  —  to  greater  or  less  productivity 
of  soil  ?  Will  the  methods  now  pursued  make  it 
possible  at  the  end  of  the  twentieth  century  for 
every  honest,  temperate  and  industrious  man  or  wo- 
man to  earn  each  day  enough  to  supply  the  neces- 
sities of  life  and  a  modest  surplus, — conditions  which 
may  now  be  reached  by  nearly  all  able-bodied  farmers 
in  America?  All  these  questions  are  worth  thought- 
ful consideration,  though  no  one  may  be  able  to  an- 
swer them  definitely. 

It  will  be  seen  how  far-reaching  the  subject  of 
commercial  fertilizers  and  continued  productivity  of 
the  land  becomes  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
past,  and  with  regard  to  the  welfare  of  the  future 
of  our  country.  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  by 
using  a  given  amount  of  fertilizers  on  a  given  area 
there  will  be  an  increase  of  crop,  or  that  such  an 
application  will  be  profitable.  To  treat  the  subject 
from  this  mole-like,  immediate- profit  point  of  view, 
is  to  lose  sight  of  the  real  problem  to  be  discussed 
and  solved.  The  real  question  is,  how  to  use  the 
land  most  wisely,  how  most  economically  to  produce 
high -classes  of  food  for  the  eater,  an  extended  va- 
riety of  cheap  food  for  the  consumer  while  insur- 
ing   a    profit    to    the    producer,  and    an    increase    in 


264  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

the  productivity  of  the  land.  We  who  have  secured 
our  farms  from  an  over-kind  government  at  a  mini- 
mum of  cost  have  no  right  to  use  the  soil  simply 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  present  generation,  and 
hand  it  over  to  future  generations  with  no  thought 
of   their  welfare. 


GENERAL   REMARKS   UPON    THE   USE   OF   COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZERS. 

The  productivity  of  the  land  used  for  the  grow- 
ing of  field  crops  cannot  be  indefinitely  maintained 
without  the  application  of  some  of  the  mineral  ele- 
ments of  plant  growth.  To  determine  the  period 
when  it  is  best  to  substitute,  in  part,  additional 
plant -food  for  additional  tillage,  is  not  simple,  neither 
is  it  always  easy  to  determine  the  amounts  and 
kinds  of  plant -food  which  it  is  wisest  to  apply. 
The  experience  of  every  farmer  who  has  grown  a 
clover  or  other  leguminous  crop  will  lead  him  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  one  high-priced  element  of 
plant -food,  nitrogen,  is  the  one  that  is  most  easily 
and  cheaply  procured.  This  fact  simplifies  the  prob- 
lem of  maintaining  productivity,  as  governed  by  one 
element,    in    many    portions   of   the  country. 

Questioning  the  soil  as  to  its  mineral  constitu- 
ents would  not  be  difficult,  if  a  practicable  method 
for  cheaply  determining  the  availability  of  the  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  and  their  various  combi- 
nations in  the  soil,  had  been  discovered.  Here,  as 
in    so    many    other    instances,    the   chemist    and    the 


Multiplicatian   of  Brands.  265 

farmer  must  join  hands  and  work  together,  one 
with  crucible  and  retort,  the  other  with  plow  and 
plant.  From  now  on  the  plow -share  must  be 
kept  hot,  and  the  farmer  must  be  alert,  that  he 
may  take  advantage  of  every  new  discovery  of  the 
student. 

From  a  few  brands  of  natural  and  manufactured 
fertilizers,  the  number  of  mixtures  has  grown  to  be- 
wildering proportions.  The  New  York  State  Experi- 
ment Station  (at  Geneva,  N.  Y.)  registered  in  1896, 
up  to  November  20,  126  manufactories  and  1,112  sep- 
arate and  distinct  brands  of  fertilizers.  It  would  be 
uncharitable  to  suppose  that  this  multiplication  of 
brands  is  intended  to  confuse  the  farmer,  yet  this  is 
the  result.  If  a  suitable  fee  were  required  of  the 
manufacturer  for  each  brand  of  fertilizer  sold  in  New 
York  (see  fourth  column  in  Table  LXXX.),  it  would 
not  only  tend  to  reduce  the  multiplication  of  them, 
but,  if  wisely  expended,  would  produce  a  fund  suffi- 
cient to  guard  the  rights  of  the  purchaser  and  the 
conscientious  manufacturer.  True,  the  fee,  or  the 
greater  part  of  it,  would  eventually  be  paid  by  the 
user,  but  he  would  willingly  bear  such  additional  ex- 
pense could  he  be  assured  that  he  received  just 
what  he  paid  for.  Then,  too,  he  has  a  right  to  a 
guarantee  of  the  composition  and  weight  of  each 
sack  or  package,  set  forth  in  terms  so  plain  that 
he  will  not  be  compelled  to  employ  an  interpreter 
to   reveal   the    meaning   of   the    terms    used. 

Abstracts  of  the  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the 
fertilizer  trade  in  the  various  states  are  given  below: 


266 


The    Fertility  of  the    Land. 


table  lxxx. — Abstracts  offertili- 


i 

& 

0 

Label  must  show 
name  of  manu- 
facturer,  place 
of  mauuf'ture, 
brand  or  trade- 
mark,    guaran- 
teed   per    cent 
of  N,  or  equiv- 
alent NH3,  KaO 
and  PaOs. 

Analysis   fee    is 
required       for 
each  ingredient 
claimed. 

License  or  anal- 
ysis fee  for  each 
brand  sold. 

Arizona. 

Alabama. 

Connecticut  $10.00 

Delaware  . . 

$.'{0.00 

California. 

Connecticut. 

Maine,    for 

Illinois 

20.00 

Colorado. 

Delaware. 

PaOs 

10.00 

Indiana 

2.00 

Idaho. 

Florida. 

Nor  KaO. 

5.00 

Kentucky. . 

15.00 

Iowa. 

Georgia. 

Mas  sachu- 

Maryland.  . 

15.00 

Kansas. 

Illinois. 

5.00 

Michigan  . . 

20.00 

Minnesota. 

Indiana. 

Rhode     Isl- 

Mississippi 

15.00 

Montana. 

Kentucky. 

(>.00 

Missouri.  . . 

10.00 

Nebraska. 

Maine. 

West      Vir- 

NewJersey. 

15.00 

Nevada. 

Maryland. 

10.00 

Ohio 

20.00 

New  Mexico. 

Massachusetts. 

Pennsylv'a. 

10.00 

North  Dakota. 

Michigan. 

Virginia  ex- 

Oklahoma. 

Mississippi. 

cess  of   10 

Oregon. 

Missouri. 

brands,  ea. 

10.00 

South  Dakota. 

New  Hampshire. 

f 20.00 

Texas. 

New  Jersey. 

Wisconsin. 

I  25.00 
[  50.00 

Utah. 

New  York. 

Washington. 

North  Carolina. 

Wyoming. 

Ohio. 

Pennsylvania. 
Rhode  Island. 
South  Carolina. 
Tennessee. 
Vermont. 
Virginia. 
West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin. 

State    Regulations. 


267 


zer  laws  of  different  states. 


License  fee   for 
each    manufac- 
turer, to  cover 
all  brands. 

A    tax    required 
for    each     ton 
sold. 

New  Hamp- 

Florida . . . 

shire  $50.00 

Georgia. . . 

Vermont...  100. 00 

North  Car- 

Virginia,10 

olina  

brands  or 

South  Car- 

less  100.00 

olina  

Tennessee 

10 


50 


"5  Sf  ~ 

Alabama j$100.00  to5  yrs. 

(^  imprisonment. 

Connecticut $100.00  to  $200.00 

Delaware 200.00  "    300.00 

Florida 500.00  "  1,000.00 

.-,  f    Punished      as 

<  leorina -         .    , 

b  (    misdemeanor. 

Illinois $200.00  to  $500.00 

Indiana 50.00"  100.00 

Kentucky 100.00"  500.00 

Maine 100.00  "  200.00 

Maryland 100.00  "  200.00 

Massachusetts  ...     50.00"  100.00 

Michigan 100.00"  300.00 

„.     .  f  Forfeiture    and 

Missi-ssrpp. |       damages. 

Missouri $100.00  to  $200.00 

New  Hampshire  ..  500.00 

New  Jersey 50. 00  to    100.00 

New  York  100.00 

North  Carolina per  bag,    10.00 

Ohio 200.00  to    500.00 

Pennsylvania 25.00"    200.00 

Rhode  Island 50.00"     100.00 

c      .,    , ,       ,,  I    Not  to  exceed 

South  (  arolinu....  j  $i,000.00 

Tennessee $50.00  to    100.00 

Vermont   50.00  "    100.00 

Virginia 1,000.00 

West  Virginia 10.00"     100.00 

Wisconsin 100.00"    200.00 


268  TJie   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  Can  the  farmer 
afford  to  use  commercial  fertilizers  ?  From  the  facts 
presented  in  previous  chapters,  the  conclusion  is  in- 
evitably reached  that  only  by  painstaking  observation 
of  all  the  factors  which  effect  increased  production, 
coupled  with  actual  t  tests  of  fertilizers  in  the  field 
by  persons  who  are  willing  to  make  a  somewhat 
careful  study  of  the  conditions  present,  can  the  ques- 
tion be  answered  with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 

If  a  given  quantity  of  fertilizers  be  applied  to 
imperfectly  fitted  land  and  the  result  is  profitable, 
is  it  any  indication  that  equally  good  results  might 
not  have  been  reached  without  fertilizers  had  better 
tillage  been  given  ?  Too  frequently,  fertilizers  are 
made  to  take  the  place  of  tillage,  when  they  should 
be  used  to  supplement  it.  That  is,  fertilizers  are 
most  likely  to  produce  profitable  results  when  con- 
joined with  superior  physical  conditions  of  soil. 
The  appropriate  quantities  and  kinds  can  only  be 
determined  by  actual  investigation,  and  by  using  vari- 
ous mixtures  of  known  composition.  Instead  of  pur- 
chasing several  brands  of  fertilizers  to  secure  rela- 
tively larger  or  smaller  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  it  is  usually  best  to  pur- 
chase these  substances  separately,  of  reliable  dealers, 
whose  guarantee  can  be  trusted,  and  mix  them  in 
such  proportions  as  experience  shows  to  be  best. 
It  is  usually  more  economical  to  purchase  high-grade 
than  low-grade  products,  since  the  soil  usually  con- 
tains enough  low-grade  plant -food,  and  since  some- 
thing  is   saved    in    packages   and    transportation,   and 


Unscientific    Use   of  Fertilizers.  269 

labor  of  applying  them.  In  the  purchase  of  high- 
grade  products,  there  is  the  satisfaction  of  securing 
what  is  wanted,  without  purchasing  and  handling 
what  is  not  wanted. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  commercial  fertil- 
izers tend  to  deplete  the  soil,  and  there  is  some 
truth  in  this  notion  when  they  are  used  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  Not  infrequently  it  occurs  that  an 
application  of  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds 
of  commercial  fertilizers  per  acre  increases  the  yield 
five  to  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat,  and  in  some  cases 
such  application  makes  the  difference  between  a 
failure  and  a  fairly  full  crop,  so  marked  are  the 
beneficial  effects  of  fertilizers  on  some  soils.  But 
unless  some  measures  are  taken  to  unlock  the  ele- 
ments in  the  soil  by  extra  tillage,  provided  the  soil 
contains  an  abundance  of  tough  plant-food,  or  living 
plants  or  manures,  or  both,  be  used  to  reinforce  the 
land,  diminished  productivity  must  come  on  more 
rapidly  than  it  would  have  done  if  no  fertilizers  had 
been  used.  The  unscientific  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers has  led  many  a  farmer  to  conclude  that  they 
injure  the  land  by  reason  of  their  "stimulating" 
effect.  Observation  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  many  cases  the  yield  of  grain  steadily  diminished 
where  only  a  few  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of  fer- 
tilizers were  used  and  the  old  methods  of  tillage 
and  treatment  of  the  land  continued,  and  the  effect 
of  the  fertilizers  was  likened  to  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  the  confirmed  toper;  but  to  stop  meant  collapse, 
and  to  go  on  implied  constantly  increased  use. 


270  The   Fertility  of  the   Land. 

Commercial  fertilizers  do  not  stimulate  plant 
growth,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  commonly 
used.  They  do  stimulate  by  furnishing  true  nourish- 
ment; then  how  can  the  observed  effect  be  explained? 
It  is  well  known  that  plants  frequently  suffer  from 
lack  of  a  full  supply  of  food  at  the  critical  period  of 
their  growth.  When  they  have  used  the  easily  avail- 
able food  stored  in  the  seed,  but  have  not  yet  had 
time  to  form  roots  sufficiently  numerous  to  secure  a 
full  supply  of  nourishment  from  that  which  is  less 
available  in  the  soil,  the  addition  of  easily  available 
concentrated  nourishment  is  of  the  greatest  value. 
Most  land  is  so  imperfectly  fitted  for  the  highest 
welfare  of  plants  that  unless  a  small  amount  of 
tender  plant -food  be  placed  in  juxtaposition  to  the 
seed,  growth  languishes  until  the  plant  has  extended 
and  multiplied  its  roots  sufficiently  to  secure  a  sup- 
ply of  nourishment  from  the  tough  and  less  con- 
centrated constituents  stored  in  the  soil.  If,  then, 
some  easily  available  nourishment  is  at  hand  to  sus- 
tain the  plant,  and  keep  it  in  full  vigor  during  the 
transition  from  seed  to  soil,  it  is  evident  that  a 
larger  crop  will  be  secured  than  would  have  been 
obtained  if  no  additional  nourishment  had  been 
furnished;  and  this  quick  start,  when  compared  with 
unfertilized  plants,  appears  to  the  farmer  to  be  a 
stimulation. 

The  amount  of  valuable  elements  removed  from 
the  soil  by  the  increased  yield,  due  to  the  action  of 
the  fertilizer,  is  sometimes  greater  than  the  amount 
of   these   elements    added    by  the   fertilizer;    thus   the 


Judicious    Use    of   Fertilizers.  271 

drain  upon  the  soil  is  greater  than  it  would  have 
been  had  no  fertilizer  been  applied.  Notwithstanding 
this,  the  applieation  of  small  amounts  of  high-grade 
fertilizers  is  not  only  rational,  but  usually  profitable, 
if  used  in  conjunetion  with  cover  crops,  barn  manure 
and  intelligent  rotation.  Nevertheless,  their  use 
alone  too  often  assists  in  depleting  the  soil  of  its 
fertility  to  the  point  where  profitable  tillage  ceases, 
and  if  the  practice  of  using  only  small  amounts  of 
fertilizers  is  continued  it  may,  as  shown  above, 
accelerate  soil  depletion.  The  productivity  of  the 
land  may  be,  and  often  is,  maintained  and  even  in- 
creased by  the  intelligent  applieation  of  liberal 
amounts  of  fertilizers  in  connection  with  a  judicious 
rotation  and  wisdom  in  farm -management. 

It  is  believed  that  the  beneficial  effects  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  due  as  much  to  the  timely 
supply  as  to  the  amount  of  nourishment  they  con- 
tain. This  timely  supply  enables  the  plants  to  en- 
large their  root  system,  whereby  they  are  able  to 
secure  more  nourishment  from  the  soil  over  and 
above  that  furnished  by  the  fertilizers,  than  they 
could  have  secured  without  such  supply.  If  this  be 
so,  it  is  seen  again  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  in 
small  quantities  may  not  only  largely  increase  the 
yield  of  crops,  but  may  also  serve  to  deplete  the 
soil  of  some  of  its  elements  of  plant -food  more 
rapidly  than  would  the  same  kind  of  crops  and 
treatment    without   their   use. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  complete 
fertilizers,  that  is,  those  which  contain  nitrogen,  phos- 


272  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

phoric  acid  and  potash  in  the  proportions  found  in 
the  plants  to  be  grown.  But  plants  vary  widely  in 
amounts  and  proportions  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash;  the  variations  are  due  to  many  causes, 
such  as  an  abundance  or  lack  of  moisture,  sunshine, 
and  inherited  power  of  the  plants.  Then,  too,  the  soil 
varies  more  widely  in  the  percentage  of  plant -food 
and  its  availability  than  the  plants  do.  Usually  it  is 
desirable  to  increase  the  leaves  and  stalks, — the  vege- 
tative system, — of  plants  intended  simply  for  forage; 
this  can  be  done  by  supplying  them  with  an  abun- 
dance of  nitrogen,  while  the  production  of  grain  and 
some  tubers  and  roots  is  best  secured  by  using  mod- 
erate quantities  of  nitrogen  and  liberal  quantities  of 
available  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
limit  to  the  profitable  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
Manifestly  no  definite  conclusions  can  be  reached 
which  may  serve  for  general  application.  If  the  in- 
vestigations be  carried  on  with  a  single  crop,  as 
wheat,  for  a  long  series  of  years,  the  soil  becomes  ab- 
normal, since  twenty  to  forty  years'  continuous  wheat 
culture,  as  conducted  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  depletes 
the  soil  of  its  humus,  and  hence  of  its  power  to  hold 
moisture  and  to  set  free  phosphoric  acid.  Then,  too, 
no  account  is  taken,  usually,  of  the  amount  and  avail- 
ability of  the  stores  of  plant -food  already  in  the  soil. 
For  instance,  if  mineral  fertilizers  alone  be  used  and 
but  slight  increase  is  secured,  the  natural  conclusion 
would  be  that  there  was  as  much  mineral  matter 
present  as  the  plants  could   utilize,  or  that  they  could 


Question    the    Soil.  273 

not  avail  themselves  of  it  because  of  a  lack  of  mois- 
ture or  some  necessary  element  or  elements;  but  such 
investigation  does  not  reveal  positively  the  real  cause 
of  low  production.  If  a  complete  fertilizer  is  used, 
no  matter  whether  such  application  is  profitable  or 
unprofitable,  the  problem  still  remains  unsolved,  for 
a  fertilizer  which  contains  relatively  little  mineral 
matter  and  a  liberal  amount  of  nitrogen,  as  compared 
with  a  complete  fertilizer,  might  give  profitable  in- 
crease, as  has  happened  in  some  of  the  experiments 
conducted  in  this  country  and  Europe  ;  yet  no  general 
rule  is  revealed. 


SOME    SPECIFIC    ADVICE    AS    TO    FERTILIZERS    AND 
CROPS. 

There  appears  to  be  no  way  to  find  a  universal 
rule  to  guide  the  farmer  as  to  the  kinds  or  quantities 
of  commercial  fertilizers  which  are  likely  to  produce 
the  greatest  profitable  results.  A  law  does  appeal' 
which  is  of  very  general  application,  namely,  the 
higher  the  price  realized  for  the  products  raised,  the 
more  liberal  the  application  may  be  without  exceeding 
the  limit  of  profit.  There  seems  to  be  no  alternative 
but  to  again  send  the  farmer  to  the  field,  and  ad- 
monish him  to  make  the  plants  comfortable  by  tillage 
and  by  the  best  possible  use  of  the  elements  in  the 
soil,  and  to  keep  a  fairly  tight  grip  on  the  phosphate 
sack  until  he  has  questioned  the  soil  and  the  plants, 
and  has  received  their  answers.  He  must  experi- 
ment  for   himself. 


274  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

It,  therefore,  requires  judgment  and  some  expe- 
rience to  know  when  and  where  to  apply  commer- 
cial fertilizers  to  the  best  advantage.  If  the  effects 
of  commercial  fertilizers,  when  applied  intelligently, 
are  noted,  it  will  be  observed  that  they  usually 
produce  beneficial  results  by  furnishing  easily  avail- 
able nourishment  to  the  plants  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  their  growth,  as  already  explained;  therefore  it 
is  advisable  to  distribute  them  in  the  soil  near  the 
seeds,  that  nourishment  may  be  at  hand  in  suffi- 
cient abundance  to  give  the  young  plants  a  vigor- 
ous  and   healthy   start   in   life. 

If  liberal  applications  of  nitrogen  are  made,  as 
for  instance,  to  winter  wheat  and  fruit  plantations, 
in  September,  they  may  produce  such  rapid  and 
sappy  growth  as  to  endanger  the  plants.  Rust  or 
damage  from  cold  weather  frequently  occur  when 
plants  have  made  a  late  and  immature  growth.  In 
the  case  of  wheat  and  some  other  crops,  it  may  be 
well  to  withhold  a  part  or  all  of  the  nitrogen  in  the 
fall,  or  make  an  application  of  somewhat  slow -acting 
organic  nitrogen,  as  cotton -seed  meal.  Plants  often 
suffer  seriously  for  want  of  available  nitrogen  when 
they  are  recovering  from  the  injury  of  winter  ex- 
posure. Quick-acting  nitrogen,  such  as  nitrate  of 
soda,  is  especially  beneficial  in  assisting  them  to  a 
strong,  early  start.  Later  in  the  season,  when  ni- 
trification is  active,  they  may  get  their  supply  nor- 
mally from  the  soil. 

Some  soils  respond  to  applications  of  commercial 
fertilizers    far   more    satisfactorily   than    others.     Why 


Use   and   Non-Use    of  Fertilizers.  275 

this  is  so  is  difficult  to  explain.  Sometimes  the  soil 
has  become  too  acid,  as  shown  by  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  (see 
Chapter  XIII.);  in  other  cases  the  causes  which 
produce  the  widely  different  results  are  wholly  ob- 
scure. On  both  sides  of  the  head  of  Cayuga  Lake, 
in  New  York,  and  for  some  distance  to  the  south- 
ward, only  small  amounts  of  fertilizers  are  used, 
while  to  the  northward  of  this  district  they  are 
used  liberally  and  with  markedly  beneficial  results.  It 
would  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  first -named 
district  would  be  the  one  to  be  most  benefited, 
since  the  natural  fertility  of  the  land  is  far  in- 
ferior  to  that  of  the  district  lying  to  the  north  of 
it.  Many  tests  of  fertilizers  have  been  made  in  the 
southern  district  with  and  without  applications  of 
lime,  and  only  in  rare  cases  increased  yield  has  justi- 
fied such  application.  In  the  northern  districts  sev- 
eral carloads  of  fertilizers  are  sold  annually  at  each 
of  the  little  villages  on  the  lines  of  railways,  while  in 
the  southern  a  very  few  carloads  serve  for  a  wide 
extent  of  territory.  In  making  a  survey  of  some 
of  the  middle  states,  it  is  found  that  in  certain  sec- 
tions fertilizers  are  in  common  use,  while  in  others 
they  are  used  sparingly  or  not  at  all. 

When  inquiry  is  made  as  to  the  cause  of  use  or 
non-use  of  fertilizers,  the  answer  in  one  section  is, 
"It  pays,  and  therefore  I  cannot  afford  to  do  with- 
out them";  in  the  other,  "It  does  not  pay,  and  there- 
fore I  cannot  afford  it."  Usually  the  first  answer 
comes  from  farmers  who  till   soils  which  are  naturallv 


276  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

adapted  to  a  vigorous  growth  of  a  wide  range  of 
plants.  True,  the  people  who  farm  the  better  lands 
are,  as  a  rule,  more  progressive  than  those  are  who 
farm  the  poorer  lands,  but  this  does  not  fully  ex- 
plain why  fertilizers  are  used  liberally  in  one  locality 
and  sparingly  in  another.  Where  land  is  expensive 
and  near  good  markets,  soils  which  were  naturally 
poor  have  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  pro- 
duction   largely   by  the  aid  of  manures. 

Since  barn  manures  are  bulky  and  expensive  to 
transport  and  distribute,  would  it  not  be  better 
economy,  instead  of  purchasing  barn  manures  from 
the  city  stables,  to  get  some  of  the  humus  for  the 
soil  by  raising  cover  and  catch  crops  for  green  ma- 
nure, and  then  secure  the  additional  plant -food  needed 
by  the  more  liberal  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  ?  In 
market -gardening,  rapid,  early  growth  is  usually  de- 
sirable, and  it  is  likely  that  these  results  could  be 
secured  through  the  quick -acting  fertilizers,  in  con- 
nection with  barn  manures  and  cover  crops,  more 
economically  than  through  the  slower- acting  manures 
alone.     (See  Chapter  XIV.) 

Fertilizers  usually  give  best  results  when  they  are 
well  mixed  with  the  soil  which  lies  near  to  and 
around  the  seeds  when  they  are  planted.  Liberal  ap- 
plications of  high-grade  fertilizers,  especially  if  applied 
when  the  soil  is  dryish,  may  do  serious  injury  by 
absorbing  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  thereby  arresting 
germination,  or  by  furnishing  plant -food  which  is 
too  concentrated  for  the  young  rootlets,  in  which  case 
the   roots   are   injured,  and   are    said    to    be  "burned 


Estimated    Values   of  Fertilizers.  277 

off."  When  moisture  is  abundant,  no  damage  is 
likely  to  occur,  since  the  fertilizers  then  tend  to 
become  diffused  through  the  soil,  but  it  is  not  only 
safest,  but  most  economical,  to  incorporate  the  fer- 
tilizer with  some  of  the  soil  in  the  drill  or  row. 
The  quantity  to  be  applied  can  be  determined  only 
by  trial,  having  in  mind  that  a  residue  always  re- 
mains unused  by  the  crop  to  which  it  is  applied, 
in  which  case  it  may  be  of  some  value  to  succeed- 
ing crops. 

In  some  cases  the  beneficial  action  of  fertilizers 
may  be  marked  on  the  crop  which  grows  with  and 
immediately  after  the  one  to  which  they  are  applied; 
for  instance,  fertilizers  applied  to  wheat  and  similar 
crops  may  benefit  the  timothy  and  clover  seeding  as 
much  as  the  wheat.  In  fact,  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  but  a  poor  or  even  no  "stand"  of 
grass  can  be  secured  without  the  use  of  fertilizers 
on  the  wheat,  whereas  by  their  use  a  successful 
"catch"  is  secured. 

ESTIMATING     THE     COMMERCIAL     VALUE     OK 
FERTILIZERS. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  trade 
values  or  cost  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash. It  is  evident  that  the  cost  must  be  governed, 
to  some  extent,  by  locality  and  other  conditions;  for 
instance,  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in 
a  ton  of  cotton -seed  meal  has  an  estimated  trade 
value,   according    to     the    illustrative     table     below,  of 


278 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


$23.64   per   ton. 
to  $19  per  ton. 


It   sells   in   the   south   at   from 


TABLE    LXXXI. 

Average  of  33  analyses  of  cotton-seed  meal. 
(Bui.  20,  So.  Ca.  Exp.  Sta.,  1895.) 


Phosphoric  acid. 

a 

9 
M 

O 
b 

2 

0 
0  03 

•a"3 

oj  0 

3 

i 

0 
00 

'8 
2 

Citrate- 
soluble. 

Available. 

1 
g 

.18** 

"3 

O 

Potash  solu 
in  water. 

Relative  cc 
mercial  va 
per  ton. 

7.37  i 

1.33  i 

1.25  *    2.58  * 

1 

2.76  * 

6.75* 

8.19  * 

1.66  * 

$23.64 

Estimated    trade  value 

4.5  0 

it.:,  i- 

5* 

The  following  table  gives  trade  values,  based  on 
prices  at  a  given  time  and  place,  which  serve  to  assist 
in  making  comparisons  of  various  substances  : 

TABLE    LXXXM. 

Trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  and 

chemicals  A 

1896. 
Cts.  per  lb. 

Nitrogen  in  ammonia  .salts 15. 

"        "    nitrates 13.5 

Organic  nitrogen  iti  dry  and  fine  ground  fish,  meat,  blood,  and 

in  high-grade  mixed  fertilizers 14. 

'•  "  "    cotton-seed  meal 12. 

"  "  "    fine  ground  hone  and  tankage 13.5 

•'  "         "      "        "        medium  bone  and  tankage ... .   12. 

The  law  of  South  Carolina  gives  no  trade  value  to  insoluble  phosphoric  acid. 
Before  proceeding  further  it  should  be  stated  that  the  term  insoluble  is  ap- 
plied to  phosphoric  acid  which  is  insoluble  in  a  solution  of  neutral  ammonium 
citrate  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.09  at  a  temperature  of  65°  Centigrade. 

t  Bull.  42,  Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.,  1896. 


Estimated1  Trade    Values.  279 

1896, 

Cts.  per  ib. 

Organic  nitrogen  in  medium  bone  and  tankage 9. 

"  "  "   coarse  bone  and  tankage .'?. 

"  "  "   hair,  horn  shavings  and  coarse  fish  scraps.  3. 

Phosphoric  acid  soluble  in  water 5.5 

"  "  "        "  ammonium  citrate 5. 

"in  fine  bone  and  tankage 5. 

"  "      "    "     medium  bone  and  tankage 4. 

"  "      "  medium  bone  and  tankage 2.5 

"  "      "  coarse  bone  and  tankage 2. 

"  "      "  fine  ground  fish,  cotton-seed  meal,  linseed 

meal,  castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes 4.5 

"  "  insoluble  (in  ammonium  citrate)  in  mixed 

fertilizers 2. 

Potash    as    high-grade    sulphate,   and    in   mixtures    free    from 

muriate 5. 

"        "  "  muriate 4.."> 

The  manurial  constituents  contained  in    feci -stuffs  are   valued  as 
folloirs  : 

Organic  nitrogen 12. 

Phosphoric  acid 4.5 

Potash 5. 

"  The  above  trade  values  are  the  figures  at  which, 
in  the  six  months  preceeding  March,  1896,  the  respec- 
tive ingredients  could  be  bought  at  retail  for  cash  in 
our  large  markets,  in  the  raw  materials,  which  are  the 
regular  source  of   supply." 

While  the  preceding  table  gives  the  trade  values 
of  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  and  chemi- 
cals in  the  six  months  preceding  March,  1896,  it  gives 
no  information  as  to  the  prices  the  farmer  paid  for 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  when  purchased 
from  agents  in  the  ordinary  mixed  commercial  fer- 
tilizers which  were  found  on  the  market.  Since  the 
economic  production  of   crops,  as  governed  by  the  use 


280  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

and  cost  of  fertilizers,  must  depend  largely  on  the 
actual  cost  of  them  to  the  farmer,  it  may  be  well  to 
determine  so  far  as  it  is  possible  what  that  cost  is,  at 
least  in  one  State. 

W.  H.  Jordan,  Director  of  the  New  York  State 
Experiment  Station,  has  made  an  extended  study  of 
this  subject,  and  since  the  execution  of  the  laws 
governing  the  fertilizer  trade  is  assigned  to  the  State 
Station,  he  has  had  unusual  facilities  for  securing 
accurate  information.  By  permission,  I  publish  the 
following  letter  from  him,  dated  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
March  5,  1897: 

"Taking  the  average  composition  of  the  factory- 
mixed  complete  fertilizers  which  were  offered  for  sale 
in  New  York  last  year,  together  with  the  selling 
price  as  given  us  by  the  agents,  we  find  that  the 
average  price  per  pound  for  nitrogen  would  be  20.2 
cents;  available  phosphoric  acid,  including  the  soluble, 
8  cents;  potash,  soluble  in  water,  6.5  cents.  These 
figures  were  arrived  at  in  this  way: 

"We  found  that  the  average  selling  price  for 
these  goods  was  a  certain  percentage  above  the  prices 
for  which  similar  materials  could  be  bought  near 
large  markets.  In  order,  then,  to  get  the  prices 
which  the  farmers  were  asked  to  actually  pay,  we 
simply  increased  these  so-called  Station  valuations 
just  the  percentage  which  the  retail  factory -mixed 
goods  are  selling  above  what  the  same  goods  would 
cost  if  bought  according  to  Station  valuation." 

It  will  not  be  difficult  for  the  farmer  to  com- 
pare  the  average   price  paid  in  New  York  for  nitro- 


The   Farmer   to    Test   and   Decide.  281 

gen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  factory -mixed 
complete  fertilizers,  in  1896,  with  the  retail  cash 
price,  as  given  in  Table  LXXXII.  Having  shown 
what  the  trade  values  of  various  ingredients  were 
in  our  large  markets  in  1896,  and  the  average  cost 
to  the  user  for  the  same  ingredients  in  the  same 
year,  it  must  now  be  left  to  the  farmer  to  decide 
for  himself  whether  he  will  purchase  plant -food  in 
the  various  forms  of  raw  material  or  in  factory- 
mixed  fertilizers.  (See  "Home  Mixing  of  Fertili- 
zers," page  289.) 

The  trade  value  or  cost  of  many  fertilizing  sub- 
stances may  be  determined  approximately,  but  how 
much  any  given  fertilizer  may  be  worth  to  the  user 
of  it  cannot  be  determined  until  a  trial  of  it  has 
been  made  in  the  field,  and  as  soon  as  this  is  done 
so  many  complications  enter  into  the  investigation 
that  it  requires  a  clear  understanding  to  interpret 
the  results.  High-grade  fertilizers  are  often  applied 
to  soils  which  contain  only  a  moderate  supply  of 
available  plant -food,  with  no  marked  benefits.  In 
such  cases  the  manufacturer  may  be  accused  of  sell- 
ing a  poor  quality  of  goods  at  exorbitant  prices. 
In  some  cases,  it  is  probable  that,  had  the  purchaser 
of  the  fertilizer  used  as  much  intelligence  in  secur- 
ing good  seed  and  comfortable  conditions  for  the 
plants  as  the  manufacturer  of  reliable  fertilizers  is 
compelled  to  use  in  his  business,  the  results  might 
have  been  entirely  satisfactory. 

An  earnest  effort  should  be  made  on  the  part 
of   the   farmer   to    give   fertilizers    full    opportunity  to 


282  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

produce  results,  for  only  by  so  doing  can  any  true 
test  be  made  of  their  value.  That  such  opportunity 
is  not  given  in  many  cases  is  fully  proved  by  the 
fact  that  the  farmers  who  are  most  painstaking  in 
selecting  seed  and  in  preparing  the  land  for  a  crop 
purchase  fertilizers  more  freely  than  those  do  who 
are  careless  in  their  farm  operations.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  manufacturers  should  take  pains  to  make 
the  statement  of  the  percentages  of  the  valuable 
constituents  in  their  goods  so  plain  that  fair  com- 
parisons could  be  made  easily.  Nearly  all  of  the  old, 
well-established  firms  make  a  fairly  clear  statement 
on  the  tags  attached  to  their  packages,  but  many 
fertilizers  are  placed  on  the  market  with  confusing 
statements  as  to  their  composition.  The  two  follow- 
ing samples,  copied  from  manufacturers7  tags,  have 
the  appearance  of  an  effort  to  confuse  the  purchaser 
and  to  prevent  him  from  arriving  at  any  basis  for 
comparisons : 

SAMPLE   I. 

Analysis. 

Per  cent. 

Ammonia 3.      to    4. 

Phosphoric  acid  I  soluble  and  reverted) 10.        "12. 

Phosphoric  acid  (insoluble) 1.        "2. 

Total  phosphoric  acid 11.       "14. 

Potash  K„0  (actual) 1.62   "    2.16 

Sulfate  of  potash 3.        "4. 

Suppose  the  tag  had  given  the  following  analysis, 
unaccompanied  by  any  statements  which  are  not  under- 
stood by  the  farmer,  the  estimated  value  could  have 
been  easily  made  out  by  the  purchaser : 


Estimates   Based   on    Table   LXXXII.  283 

Manufacturer' s  guaranteed  analysis  simplified. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 2.47  to  3.29 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble   7.       "8. 

"  "      reverted 3.       "  4. 

Potash  (KaO)    1.62  "  2.16 

Estimated  value  per  Ion. 

Nitrogen 49.4  lbs.  at  14    cents,  $0.92 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 140.      "      "    5.5     "         7.70 

'•       reverted 00.      "      "    5.       "         3.00 

Potash 32.      "      "    4.5    "         1.44 


$19.00 

This  fertilizer  was  retailed  at  $30  per  ton. 

SAMPLE    II. 

Analysis. 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 3.  to  4. 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 8.  "  9. 

"  "      reverted 2.  "  3. 

Potash 4.  "  5. 

Estimated  value  pur  Ion. 

Nitrogen 60  lbs.  at  14    cents,  $8.40 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 100    "     "    5.5      "         8.80 

"  "      reverted 40    "     "    5.        "         2.00 

"  "      insoluble    30    " 

Potash 80    "     "    4.5       "         3.60 


$22.80 


The  retail  price  being  $30  per  ton,  leaves  $7.20 
to  cover  cost  of  mixing,  sacks,  transportation,  agent's 
commission,  interest  on  deferred  payments,  sundry  in- 
cidental charges,  and  profits. 

The  following  figures  are  also  copies  of  tags  attached 
to  commercial  fertilizer  sacks.     It  must  be  left  to  those 


284 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


who  concocted  them  to  give  the  reasons  for  this  work 
of  supererogation  : 


SAMPLE   III. 

Ammoniated  bone  phosphate. 

Per  cent. 
Nitrogen 1.03  to    1.65 


Equivalent  to  ammonia 1.2 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid G. 

Reverted        "             "    5. 

Available       "              "    11. 

Insoluble        "             "    2. 

Total                "             "    13. 

Potash 3. 


2. 

7. 

6. 
13. 

3. 
16. 

5. 


SAMPLE    IV. 

Harvest  bone. 

Per  cent. 

Total  bone  phosphate 30  to  35 

Yielding  phosphoric  acid 14  "  16 

Soluble  bone  phosphate 22  "  26 

Yielding  water  soluble  phosphoric  acid 10"  12 

Total  available  bone  phosphate 26  "  30 

Available  phosphoric  acid 12  "  14 

Insoluble  bone  phosphate 2  "    4 

Yielding  insoluble  phosphoric  acid 1"    2 


sample  v. 

Special  potato  manure. 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 10.      to  15. 

Ammonia 2.       "    2.25 

Available  phosphoric  acid 8.       "    9. 

Equivalent  to  bone  phosphate  of  lime 20.74  "  24.01 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 1.25  "    2. 

Potash 8.       "    8.50 

Equivalent  to  sulphate 11.80  "  13.72 


Read   and    Consider.  285 

Simplified  statement  of  sample  Hi. 

Percent.      Per  ton.  Estimated  value. 

Nitrogen 1.03  20.6  lbs.  at  14    cents,  $2.88 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid    6.  120.      "     "     5.5    "        6.60 

Reverted        "             "5.  100.      "     "     5.       "        5.00 

Potash 3.  60.      "     "     4.5     "        2.70 

$17.18 
Simplified  statement  of  sample  iv. 

Per  cent.      Per  ton.  Estimated  value. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid. . .   10        200  lbs.  at  5.5  cents,  $11.00 
Reverted        "  "...     2  40    "     "    5        "  2.00 

$13.00 
Sitnplified  statement  of  sample  v. 

Per  cent.  Per  ton.  Estimated  value. 

Nitrogen 1.65  33  lbs.  at  14.  cents,  $4.62 

Available  phosphoric  acid  8.  160     ""    5.       "        8.00 

Potash 8.  160     "     "    4.5     "        7.20 

$19.82 

What  information  can  a  farmer  get  from  the  follow- 
ing guaranteed  analysis,  which  is  copied,  as  are  the 
quotations  below,  from  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station: 

SAMPLE    VI. 

"  '  Natural  plant-food. 

Per  cent. 

"' Phosphoric  acid.     Total  (P2Os) 21.60  to  29.49 

Equivalent  to  bone  phosphate  of  lime 27.20  "  64.38 

Potash  (KaO)  from  glauconite 1.00"    2.00 

Equivalent  to  common  sulfate  of  potash    2.00"    4.00 

Silicic  acid  (Si03) 5.26"    8.10 

Carbonic  acid  (CO,) 2.07"    3.00 

Lime  (CaO) 29.16  "  32.00 

Magnesia  (MgO)  and  soda  (NaaO) 3.21"    8.05 

Aluminic  (A1,03)  and  ferric  (Fea03)  oxids 5.14  "  10.26 

"  'All  available  to  plants  in  the  soil.  The  above  are 
the  lowest  and  average  analyses.'" 


286  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

"The  guaranteed  analysis  implies,  and  a  specific 
claim  is  made,  that  the  material  is  all  available  to 
plants  in  the  soil."* 

The  New  York  State  Station  has  performed  a  val- 
uable service  in  showing  in  a  brief  statement  the 
percentages  of  available  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
in  this  fertilizer  with  a  high-sounding  name,  which 
was  retailed,  including  the  name,— which  must  have 
had  great  value,— at  from  $25  to  $28  a  ton.  "An 
average  of  three  samples  shows  the  following  com- 
position : 

Per  cent. 

"Total  phosphoric  acid 22.21 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid 20.81 

Available  phosphoric  acid 1 .40 

Potash  soluble  in  water 13" 

"Natural  Plant-food"  is  really  a  mixture  of  some 
rock  phosphate  (probably  Florida  soft  phosphate)  with 
glauconite,  a  mineral  containing  potash  in  an  insolu- 
ble form,  commonly  known  as  "green  sand  marl." 

Computing  this,  as  in  previous  cases,  the  follow- 
ing estimated  values  are  secured: 

Per  ton. 

Available  phosphoric  acid 28.    lbs.  at  5    cents,  $1.40 

Potash 2.8    "     "4.5     "  .12 

$1.52 

"The  law  of  Georgia  does  not  recognize  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid   as  plant -food."t      This  would  appear 

♦Bull.  108.  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Geneva,  N.  Y.  New  Series,  Sept.  1896.  The 
real  value  of  "  Natural  Plant-food,"  L.  L.  Van  Slyke,  Ph.D.,  chemist. 

tl  am  credibly  informed  that  in  several  other  southern  states  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  is  treated  as  in  Georgia. 


Lazy   Plant -food.  287 

to  be  a  wise  provision,  since  insoluble  plant -food  is 
not  what  is  usually  wanted  in  a  fertilizer,  as  the 
soil  contains  great  abundance  of  it.  In  Table  II., 
Chapter  I.,  the  average  of  forty-nine  soil  analyses 
shows  that  more  than  4,000  pounds  per  acre  of  phos- 
phoric acid  are  contained  in  the  first  eight  inches  of 
surface  soil,  the  larger  part  of  which,  presumably,  is 
insoluble  under  present  methods  of  tillage.  Would  it 
be  wise  or  profitable  to  purchase,  at  2  cents  per 
pound,  additional  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  when  the 
soil  contains  such  vast  stores  of  this  low-grade  plant- 
food  ?  True,  a  part  of  the  so-called  insoluble  phos- 
phoric acid  may  become  available  and  produce  bene- 
ficial results,  but  since  the  soil  is  usually  abundantly 
supplied  with  the  same  kind  of  material,  would  it  not 
be  wiser  to  make  it  available  by  tillage  than  to  pur- 
chase more  of   this  lazy  plant -food? 

In  some  cases  liberal  applications  of  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  show  beneficial  results.  If  two  pots 
be  filled  from  the  same  kind  of  soil,  and  to  one  is 
added  insoluble  phosphoric;  acid,  plants  growing  in 
the  treated  soil  should  be  benefited,  since  their  roots 
would,  of  necessity,  come  in  contact  with  more  insol- 
uble phosphoric  acid  in  the  treated  than  in  the  un- 
treated soil.  The  roots  of  plants,  some  more  than 
others,  are  able  to  utilize  a  small  portion  of  the  so- 
called  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  ;  hence  it  cannot  be 
said  to  be  worthless.  Some  Stations  give  to  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  fertilizers  an  estimated  trade 
value  of  2  cents  per  pound,  while  others  assign  to  ii 
no  trade   value  whatever.     Nevertheless,   there  may  be 


288  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

exceptional  cases  where,  on  account  of  the  small 
cost  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  it  could  be  applied 
advantageously  and  even  with  profit. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  that  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  so-called  "in- 
soluble phosphoric  acid."  If  the  reader  believes  that 
it  is  worth  to  him  2  cents  per  pound,  then  the  pre- 
vious computations  should  be  amended,  and  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  should  be  added  to  the  computed 
value:  To  sample  I.,  40  cents;  II.,  60  cents;  III., 
80  cents;  IV.,  40  cents;  V.,  50  cents,  and  to  VI., 
$8.32  per  ton. 

This  "Natural  Plant -food"  has  been  treated  at 
length,  and  it  is  an  extreme  example  of  what  is  and 
has  been  taking  place  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
many  localities '  where  fertilizers  are  used,  notwith- 
standing that  intelligent  efforts  have  been  made  to 
guard  the  rights  of  users  of  commercial  plant -food. 

The  subjects  of  values,  estimated  values,  and  use 
of  fertilizers  are  surrounded  with  many  difficulties,  but 
this  fact  should  act  as  a  spur  to  increased  effort  to 
learn  what  we  may,  although  we  may  never  come  to 
unanimous  conclusion  as  to  the  trade  value  or  actual 
value  of  various  kinds  of  plant -food,  or  be  able  to 
treat  the  subject  mathematically.  When  fertilizers 
which  are  sold  at  nearly  the  same  price  vary  in  es- 
timated value,  as  computed  by  their  guaranteed  anal- 
yses, from  $3  to  $20  per  ton,  the  fact  is  worth 
knowing.  If  unmixed  fertilizers  containing  a  known 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
are    separately     purchased,    opportunity     is    given    to 


Question    the    Soil.  289 

make  tests  on  small  areas  at  a  slight  cost,  as  they 
can  be  mixed  in  variable  quantities  to  suit  the  soil 
and  the  crop  to  be  raised. 

While  esteeming  the  efforts  which  are  being  made 
by  manufacturers  for  promoting  the  farmer's  in- 
terests, I  am  led  to  urge  the  farmer  to  do  a  little 
more  thinking  for  himself.  Some  of  the  manufac- 
turers make  careful  and  extended  experiments  with 
their  fertilizers  in  the  field,  with  the  view  of  dis- 
covering how  best  to  compound  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash.  When  large  sums  are  invested 
in  this  business,  it  would  be  bad  policy  to  send  out 
goods  which  would  not,  as  a  rule,  give  satisfactory 
results,  otherwise  the  business  would  soon  come  to  an 
end.  However  valuable  these  manufacturers'  tests 
may  be,  they  cannot  take  the  place  of  those  which 
should  be  made  by  every  farmer  who  uses  fertilizers 
upon  his  own  soils  and  under  his  particular  condi- 
tions. It  has  been  pointed  out  how  variable  the 
virgin  soil  is,  and  this  soil  has  been  made  still  more 
variable  by  tillage  and  cropping ;  hence  the  need  of 
careful  fertilizer  tests  by  the  farmer  on  his  own 
fields,  since  no  test  made  elsewhere  will  tell  cer- 
tainly what  he  wants  to  know. 

HOME   MIXING    OF    FERTILIZERS.* 

It  is  believed  that  the  following  explanations  will 
be  of  assistance  to  the  young  farmer  in  his  efforts 
to   make   an    intelligent    use    of  commercial  fertilizers. 

•By   L.  A.  Clinton,  Assistant  Agriculturist,  Cornell   Exp.   Sta. 

T 


290  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

In  the  home  mixing  of  fertilizers,  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  know  what  percentage  of  the  different 
elements  is  contained  in  the  mixture.  We  will  assume 
that  it  is  wished  to  compound  a  fertilizer  made  up 
of  materials  combined  in  the  following  proportion: 

Lbs.  Per  cent. 

Nitrate  of  soda 100  guaranteed  15  nitrogen. 

Acid  phosphate 500  "  12  phosphoric  acid. 

Muriate  of  potash 100  "  50  potash. 

700 

We  have  a  mixture  of  700  pounds  of  material 
containing  15  pounds  of  nitrogen,  60  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  50  pounds  of  potash.  To  find 
the  percentage  of  each  of  the  elements,  divide  the 
amount  of  each  element  by  the  total  amount  of  the 
mixture.  In  the  assumed  case  the  calculation  would 
be  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 15-^700=2.14  nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  acid 60^-700=8.57  phosphoric  acid. 

Muriate  of  potash 50+700=7.14  potash. 

If  it  should  be  desired  to  compound  a  fertilizer 
for  wheat,  using  as  the  materials  sulfate  of  am- 
monia, dissolved  bone  and  kainit,  we  will  assume 
that  they  are  combined  in  the  proportions  and  have 
the  guaranteed  analyses  as  given  below: 

Lb8.  Per  cent. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia 80  guaranteed  24  ammonia. 

Dissolved  bone 200  "  14  phosphoric  acid. 

2  nitrogen. 
Kainit 200  "  13  potash. 

480 


Mixing   of    Fertilizers.  291 

We  have  a  mixture  of  480  pounds,  the  sulfate 
of  ammonia  containing  19.20  pounds  of  ammonia, 
of  which  tt,  or  15.8  pounds,  is  nitrogen.  The  dis- 
solved bone  contains  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  or  4 
pounds.  There  is  a  total  of  19.8  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 28  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  26  pounds 
of  potash.  The  percentage  of  each  element  in  the 
mixture  will  now  be  calculated  as  in  the  previous 
case: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 19.8—480=4. 12  nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  acid 28.  --:  480=.j.83  phosphoric  acid. 

Potash    26.    :  480=5.41  potash. 

Thus  having  given  the  ingredients  of  the  mix- 
ture, and  knowing  the  amount  and  guaranteed 
analysis  of  each  ingredient,  it  becomes  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  determine  how  many  pounds,  and  the  per- 
centage of  the  valuable  elements,  are  being  applied 
per  acre. 

In  case  it  is  wished  to  compound  and  apply  a 
mixture  of  500  pounds  which  shall  analyze  4  per 
cent  nitrogen,  6  per  cent  potash,  and  10  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  and  assuming  that  the  materials  at 
hand  are  nitrate  of  soda  guaranteed  15  per  cent 
nitrogen,  dissolved  phosphate  rock  guaranteed  18  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  muriate  of  potash  guaran- 
teed 50  per  cent  potash,  the  calculation  would  be 
made  as  follows: 

A  mixture  of  500  pounds,  to  contain  4  per  cent 
nitrogen,  calls  for  20  pounds  of  nitrogen;  6  per  cent 
potash    calls    for   30    pounds    of   potash;     10    per   cent 


292  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

phosphoric  acid  calls  for  50  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 
To  determine  how  many  pounds  of  each  ingredient 
are  required  to  furnish  the  necessary  amount,  divide 
the  number  of  pounds  of  each  element  in  the  mix- 
ture by  the  guaranteed  per  cent  of  the  element  in 
the  ingredient.  In  the  case  in  hand  the  determina- 
tions would  be  as  follows: 


Element.           Lbs. 
required 

Nitrogen 20 

Guaranteed              Lbs.  of  ingredient 
per  cent  in                     required, 
ingredient. 

15  %        133  nitrate  of  soda. 

Phosphoric  acid..  50 
Potash 30 

18  "       277  dissolved  phosphate  rock 
50  "         60  muriate  potash. 

Total  pounds  of  ingredients. .  470 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  weight  of  the  in- 
gredients is  but  470  pounds.  To  supply  the  addi- 
tional 30  pounds  required  to  make  the  500  pounds 
of  fertilizer,  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  some  ex- 
traneous material,  as  fine  road -dust  or  gypsum.  The 
addition  of  extraneous  matter  to  a  mixture  of  high- 
grade  chemicals  is  advisable  only  because  it  facili- 
tates the  even  distribution  of  the  fertilizer  over  the 
land,  and  in  the  use  of  high-grade  chemicals  this 
even  distribution  is  most  important.  Should  it  be 
so  distributed  that  a  considerable  amount  was  left 
in  spots,  the  plants,  especially  if  young  and  tender, 
would  probably  be  destroyed  or  injured  on  those 
places.  It  is  usually  better  to  purchase  high-grade 
chemicals  and  add  the  extraneous  material  at  home, 
if  thought   best,  rather  than   to   pay  others  for  add- 


Methods  of  Mixing.  293 

ing  it,  and  then  pay  freight  and  carriage  to  the  place 
of  consumption. 

The  objection  to  the  home  mixing  of  the  mate- 
rials is  that  the  work  may  not  be  properly  done. 
This  is  an  important  operation,  and  should  be  most 
thoroughly  performed.  A  tight,  smooth  floor  is  the 
first  requisite.  It  is  usually  well  to  have  the  mate- 
rials for  the  mixture  each  in  a  separate  pile,  and  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  easily  shoveled  at  the 
same  time  into  one  common  lot.  Afterwards  the 
whole  mass  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  by  shoveling 
it  over  several  times.  It  should  be  said  that  usually 
the  mixing  should  be  done  but  a  short  time  before 
the  material  is  to  be  used,  and  that  compounds  con- 
taining ammonia  should  not  be  mixed  with  lime. 

If  from  the  following  materials  we  make  a  ton  of 
mixture,  we  would  have  to  calculate  the  needed 
amounts  as  follows: 

Per  eeut. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia 20.    nitrogen=400  lbs.  nitrogen  in  a  ton. 

7.  "        =140    " 

2.5  available  phosphoric  acid= 

Cotton -seed  meal •{  50  lbs.  "  " 

1.9   water    soluble    potash=19 

lbs.  potash 

.....  r     15.     available  phosphoric  acid=: 

Acid  phosphate ■{ 

I  .10  lbs.  "  " 

.,     ,  .  ,  f    50.     water  =  soluble     potash= 

Muriate  of  potash \  ,  „„„  ,, 

v  \  1,000  lbs.  potash 

If  we  desire  to  mix  the  ingredients  to  make  a  fer- 
tilizer with  any  percentages  of  the  three  valuable  in- 
gredients, say  5.5  per  cent  each  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  aud  potash,  we  proceed  as  follows: 


294  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Per  cent. 
2,000X5-5=110  lbs.  nitrogen  required  in  a  ton. 
2,000X5.5=110   "    phosphoric  acid  required  in  a  ton. 
2,000X5.5=110   "     potash  required  in  a  ton. 

Out  of  this  110  pounds  of  nitrogen,  we  wish 
2.5  per  cent,  or  50  pounds,  of  it  to  come  from  sul- 
fate of  ammonia  and  the  rest  from  cotton -seed  meal. 
Twenty  per  cent  is  20  pounds  out  of  the  100  pounds, 
and  20  per  cent  nitrogen  in  sulfate  of  ammonia  is 
20  pounds  nitrogen  out  of  the  100  pounds  of  sulfate 
of  ammonia.      Then  from  a  simple  proportion: 

vil       j„  ♦„  /sulfate  of  am-)    „„   /nitrogen)    .    «„  /sulfate  of    »m-l 

Nitrogen  is  to  |  m<mia  Qn  han(]  }  as  \  neede"d    j    is  to  }  monia  reqnired  ) 

20  lbs.        :  100  lbs.  :    :      50  lbs.  :  250  lbs. 

This  250  pounds  of  sulfate  of  ammonia  gives  50 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  or  2.5  per  cent  for  50-^-2,000=2.5 
per  cent.  We  need  3  per  cent  of  nitrogen  still  to 
give  us  the  required  5.5  per  cent.  It  follows,  then, 
that  2,000  X  3  per  cent  =60  pounds,  to  be  supplied  by 
the  cotton -seed  meal,  which  has  7  per  cent  nitrogen 
or  7  pounds  of  nitrogen  to  the  100  pounds  of  raw 
material.     Then  again,  by  proportion: 

Nitrogen.      Cotton-seed  meal.    Nitrogen  needed.      Cotton-seed  meal. 
7  lbs.        :       100  lbs.         :    :  60  lbs.  :  857  lbs. 

This  857  pounds  cotton -seed  meal  gives  59.99 
pounds  nitrogen.  Adding  now  the  amount  of  nitro- 
gen obtained  from  the  250  pounds  sulfate  of  ammo- 
nia (50  pounds)  to  that  obtained  from  the  857  pounds 
cotton-seed  meal  (60  pounds),  we  have  the  110  pounds 
of    nitrogen     wanted.      In    the    cotton -seed    meal    we 


Home   Mixing  of  Fertilizers.  295 

have   2.5    per    cent    of   phosphoric    acid   and  1.9    per 
cent  of  potash;   so — 

875X2.5  per  cent  =  21.43  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 

and 

857X1-9  per  cent  =  Hi. 28  pounds  of  potash. 

Subtracting  the  21.43  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
from   the  original   110  pounds  wanted,   we  have: 

110— 21.43=88.57  pounds  phosphoric  acid. 

This  87.57  pounds  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  15 
per  cent  acid  phosphate.     Proceeding  as  before: 

Phos.  acid.      Acid  phosphate.      Phos.  acid  needed.      Acid  phos.  required. 
15  lbs.       :  100  lbs.       :    :        88.57  lbs.        :  590.46  lbs. 

Adding  the  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  obtained 
from  the  857  pounds  cotton -seed  meal,  which  is  21.43 
pounds,  and  from  the  590.46  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate, which  is  88.57  pounds,  we  have  the  110 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  needed. 

Continuing  similarly  for  the  potash,  and  subtract- 
ing the  16.28  pounds  of  potash  obtained  from  the 
857  pounds  of  cotton -seed  meal,  we  have  93.72 
pounds  to  be  obtained  from  the  muriate  of  potash, 
which  has  50  per  cent,  or  50  pounds,  of  potash  to 
the  100  pounds;    then — 

Potash.      Muriate  potash.       Potasli  needed.       Muriate  pot.  required. 
50  lbs.      :     100  lbs.        :    :       93.72  lbs.  187.44  lbs. 

Adding     together    the      16.28    pounds    of     potash 


296  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

obtained  from  the  cotton -seed  meal  and  the  93.72 
pounds  obtained  from  the  muriate  of  potash,  we 
have  the  desired  110  pounds  of  potash.  If  the  raw 
materials  do  not  add  up  to  2,000  pounds,  fine  sand 
or  gypsum  may  be  added,  in  order  to  make  the  exact 
weight  and  exact  percentages,  or  if  desirable,  higher 
or  lower  percentages  may  be  had  by  mixing  differ- 
ently. Summing  up,  in  order  to  see  if  our  mixture  is 
all  right,  we  have: 

Percent.  Nitrogen.       Phos.  acid.      Potash. 

20.       Sulfate  of  ammonia 250.      lbs.  =  50  lbs. 

2.5  j- Cotton-seed  meal 857  "    —60    "     21.43  lbs.       16.28  lbs 

1.9  J 

Acid  phosphate 590.46  "  88.57    " 

Muriate  of  potash 187.72  "  93.72    " 

1,885.18    "  =110    "  110.  110. 

Sand  or  dirt 114.82    " 

2,000.00    "     =    b.o%      5.5%  5.5% 

It  is  seen  again  that  it  is  better  to  buy  the  three 
elements  of  plant -food  separately  in  concentrated 
forms  and  to  mix  them  at  home. 

The  foregoing  calculations  by  Mr.  Clinton  suffi- 
ciently indicate  the  nature  of  the  problem  before  us. 
The  author  is  now  able  to  make  general  conclusions. 
The  following  quotation  is  taken  from  a  paper 
read  by  T.  Greiner  before  the  Massachusetts  Horticul- 
tural Society,  February  20,  1897:  "I  can  see  no 
necessity  for  using  ready-made  mixtures  in  the  gar- 
den, but  the  strongest  reasons  for  avoiding  that 
course.     The   mixtures   sent   out   by   various   firms  as 


Knowledge    and    Skill    Count.  297 

specially  adapted  for  garden  crops  vary  in  real  value 
between  $20  and  $26  per  ton,  and  sell  at  from  $30  to 
$40.  In  other  words,  we  pay  the  full  value  and  50 
per  cent  additional  to  make  expenses  and  losses,  as 
well  as  seller's  profit.     In  the  following — 

500  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda,  costing  about $11.25 

1,200    "    dissolved  S.  C.  rock,  costing  about 6.00 

300    "    muriate  of  potash,  costing  about 6.75 

2,000  $24.00 

we  have  a  ton  which  is  worth  $27.90,  and  equal  to  a 
fertilizer  sold  by  manufacturers  at  about  $40." 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  treat  the  subject  of 
the  trade  values  and  home  mixing  of  commercial 
fertilizers  simply  and  clearly;  nevertheless,  the  farmer 
untrained  in  chemistry  will  have  to  make  a  study  of 
the  tables  and  explanations  before  he  can  compute 
estimated  values,  or  make  intelligent  comparisons  be- 
tween two  fertilizers  having  an  honest  guaranteed 
analysis.  It  has  been  shown  how  widely  the  esti- 
mated values,  in  some  cases,  differ  from  the  selling 
price  in  various  brands  of  fertilizers.  It  must  now 
be  left  to  the  farmer  to  work  out  trade  values,  esti- 
mated values,  and  the  actual  values  to  him  of  the 
goods  he  purchases.  It  should  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  the  manufacturer  may  charge  a  dollar  an 
hour  for  his  services  in  making  estimates,  while  the 
farmer  may  receive  not  more  than  a  dollar  a  day  for 
his  time.  Would  it  not  be  better  for  the  farmer  to 
fit  himself  for  making  these  computations,  and  thus 
secure  the  more  liberal  remuneration? 


298  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

A   WORD   ON   THE   CHEMISTRY   OP   THE   SUPER- 
PHOSPHATES.* 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  word  super- 
phosphate is  understood  by  farmers  to  be  simply  an- 
other name  for  commercial  fertilizers;  but  in  the 
books,  it  is  used  in  its  true  meaning,  to  designate 
a  super -phosphated  fertilizer.  When  a  superphosphate 
is  applied  to  the  soil,  it  is  with  the  intention  of 
furnishing  available  phosphoric  acid.  Soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  is  desired  because  plants  feed  most 
readily  upon  those  elements  in  the  soil  that  are 
most  easily  dissolved.  Phosphoric  acid  as  it  exists 
in  nature,  either  in  bones,  bone  deposits,  or  rocks,  is 
almost  always  in  an  insoluble  condition;  hence,  if  we 
would  apply  it  in  an  available  form,  that  found  in  na- 
ture must  be  treated  in  some  way.     How  is  this  done  ? 

Before  considering  the  chemical  principles  upon 
which  the  manufacture  of  a  superphosphate  rests, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  understand  something  of  the 
different  compotinds  which  phosphoric  acid  forms 
with  lime.  Phosphoric  acid  is  represented  by  P»05, 
in  which  P  represents  the  element  phosphorus,  and 
O  the  element  oxygen,  and  the  figures  2  and  5  that 
phosphoric  acid  is  made  by  the  combination  of  two 
parts  of  phosphorus  and  five  of  oxygen.  Similarly, 
lime  is  represented  by  CaO,  to  show  that  it  is  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  the  element  calcium  (Ca)  and 
one  part  of  oxygen.  By  an  element,  is  meant  any 
substance  which   cannot   be   separated  by  any  possible 

*By  G«orge  W.  Cavanaugh.  Assistant  Chemist  of  the  Cornell  Exp.  8ta. 


The    Three    Calcic    Phosphates.  299 

means  into  any  other  substances.  Whenever  two  or 
more  elements  enter  into  combination  to  form  a  new 
substance,  this  new  substance  is  called  a  compound. 
For  example,  phosphorus  (P)  and  oxygen  (O)  are 
elements,  but  phosphoric  acid  (P*Os)  is  a  compound. 
Not  only  do  elements  combine  to  form  compounds, 
but  many  of  the  compounds  themselves  combine  again 
to  form  more  complex  compounds.  Thus  calcium 
(Ca)  and  phosphorus  (P)  each  unites  with  oxygen  (O) 
to  form  lime  (CaO)  and  phosphoric  acid  (P205) ;  and 
then  the  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  may  unite  to  form 
phosphate  of  lime. 

Phosphoric    acid    (Pa05),    as    found    in    bones  and 
rocks,   is  united    with  three   parts  of  lime.     This  com- 

(CaO) 

pound    mav  be  represented   by  the  formula  1  CaO  >  P305. 

ICaOJ 

This  material  is  called  tricalcium  phosphate,  because 
it  contains  three  parts  of  lime  or  calcium  oxid 
(CaO)  united  with  one  part  of  phosphoric  acid 
(PaOs).  This  is  the  form  of  phosphoric  acid  that  is 
known  as  "insoluble  phosphoric  acid,"  because  the 
compound  does  not  dissolve  in  water. 

A  second  form  in  which  phosphoric  acid  may  unite 

with    lime   is    represented   by    the    formula  \o*°\  P»Os. 

Here  the  phosphoric  acid  is  united  to  two  parts  of 
Lime  and  to  one  part  of  water  (H30),  water  being  a 
compound  containing  two  parts  of  the  element  hy- 
drogen (H)  and  one  part  of  oxygen.  This  com- 
pound is  dicalcium  phosphate.  It  is  soluble  in  soil 
water,    which  contains  carbonic  acid  (CO.). 

A  third  form  has  the  phosphoric  acid  united  to  one 


300  The   Fertility  of  the   Land. 

part    of     lime   and    two    parts  of    water.      This  com- 

fCaO) 

pound  is  represented  by  the  formulae  H*oypaOs.     Since 

this  compound  has  but  one  part  of  lime  (or  cal- 
cium oxid),  it  is  called  monocalcium  phosphate.  The 
monocalcium  phosphate  can  be  dissolved  in  water, 
and  hence  is  the  form  known  as  "soluble  phos- 
phoric acid."  The  dicalcium  phosphate  is  known 
under  the  name  of  "reverted  phosphoric  acid,"  for 
reasons  which  will  be  given  later.  Taken  together, 
the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  monocalcium  and  the 
dicalcium  phosphates  constitutes  the  available  phos- 
phoric  acid   of   a   superphosphate. 

The  problem,  then,  to  the  manufacturer  of  a 
superphosphate  is  to  change  the  insoluble  tricalcium 
phosphate  into  the  soluble  mono-  and  dicalcium 
phosphates.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  sul- 
furic acid  and  water. 

The  bones  or  rocks  are  ground  before  being  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  acid,  in  order  that  the 
acid  may  reach  all  parts  of  the  mass.  In  the 
changes  which  take  place,  one  part  of  tricalcium 
phosphate  is  acted  upon  by  two  parts  of  sulfuric 
acid,  yielding  one  part  of  monocalcium  phosphate 
and  two  parts  of  calcium  sulfate  or  gypsum.  This 
is  brought  about  by  two  parts  of  the  element  cal- 
cium in  the  tricalcium  phosphate  leaving  their  com- 
bination with  phosphoric  acid  and  combining  with 
the  sulfuric  acid.  The  place  of  each  of  these  parts 
of  calcium  (Ca)  is  taken  by  two  parts  of  the  ele- 
ment hydrogen  (H)  from  the  sulfuric  acid,  thus 
bringing    together   the    elements    of    water    (HaO)    in 


The    Agency   of   Sulfuric   Acid.  301 

the  monocalcium  phosphate.  The  reaction  is  repre- 
sented by  the  following  equation  (H,S04  represent- 
ing sulfuric  acid) : 

CaO)  CaCn 

CaO  \ P305+H2SO,=H  O  ^P2Os+CaS04 

CaO  J  HaSOj    H,Oj  CaS04 

This  is  the  ideal  reaction  to  be  effected,  because 
it  changes  all  of  the  phosphoric  acid  into  a  solu- 
ble condition.  It  is  not  possible,  ordinarily,  in  prac- 
tice, however,  to  bring  this  about.  There  is  some 
part  of  the  bones  or  rock  which  is  acted  upon  by 
the  acid  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  trical- 
cium  phosphate  to  one  part  of  the  acid.  This  may 
be  represented  by  the  equation: 

CaO )  Ca0 1 

CaO  }  Pa05-f-HaS04=CaO  VP905rCaS04 

CaO  J  H,Oj 

There  is  still  another  portion  of  the  tricalcium 
phosphate  which  entirely  escapes  the  action  of  the 
sulfuric  acid.  Hence  there  are  always  found  in  a 
superphosphate  the  three  conditions  of  phosphoric 
acid:  i.e.,  monocalcium  phosphate,  or  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid ;  dicalcium  phosphate,  or  reverted  phos- 
phoric acid ;  and  tricalcium  phosphate,  or  insoluble 
phosphoric  acid. 

Dicalcium  phosphate  is  called  reverted  phosphoric 
acid  because,  when  monocalcium  phosphate  comes  in 
contact  with  lime,  it  reunites  with  one  part  of  lime, 
and  forms  the  dicalcium  phosphate;  that  is,  the  phos- 
phoric acid  reverts  to  a  less  soluble  condition.     If   an 


302  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

abundance  of  lime  be  present,  two  parts  reunite  with 
the  monocalcium  phosphate  to  form  the  tricalcium 
phosphate;  thus  the  phosphoric  acid  may  go  back  to 
its  original  condition  ;  that  is,  it  may  become  reunited 
with  three  parts  of  lime.  However,  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  this  tricalcium  phosphate  may  be  more  avail- 
able than  in  untreated  tricalcium  phosphate,  because 
it  is  more  finely  divided,  and  may.  be  more  intimately 
mixed  with  the  soil.  The  process  of  reversion  is  the 
opposite  of  that  which  takes  place  in  the  process 
of  manufacture. 

The  lime  that  is  taken  from  tricalcium  phosphate 
by  the  sulfuric  acid  unites  with  the  sulfuric  acid 
to  form  gypsum,  or  land  plaster.  Hence,  whenever 
sulfuric  acid  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  super- 
phosphate, gypsum  is  always  one  of  the  constituents 
formed.  (For  further  discussion  of  this  subject,  see 
Appendix  B.) 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

LIME   AND    VARIOUS   AMENDMENTS. 

There  are  various  substances  which  are  beneficial 
to  the  land  at  times,  even  though  they  add  neither 
humus  nor  important  quantities  of  plant -food.  The 
benefits  arise  from  various  secondary  actions  which 
these  substances  have  upon  the  land,  such  as  improv- 
ing its  physical  condition  or  texture,  setting  free 
plant-food,  or  conserving  or  collecting  moisture.  This 
class  of  substances  is  known  under  the  general  name 
of  amendments.  Some  of  them,  like  muck  aud 
similar  substances,  contain  much  directly  available 
plant -food,  but  for  the  most  part  these  materials 
are  more  useful  for  their  secondary  or  incidental 
effects  than  for  their  intrinsic  qualities. 

LIME. 

Lime  is  obtained  from  limestone  rock,  chalk  and 
shells.  These  in  their  natural  condition  the  chemist 
terms  carbonate  of  lime  (CaCOs).  By  subjecting  them 
to  a  strong  heat  for  some  time,  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  moisture  are  driven  off,  and  the  product  is 
quicklime,  or  caustic  lime  (CaO).  When  slaked  with 
water,  hydrate  of  lime  (Ca[OH]»)  is  formed.  The 
carbonate    of     lime    is    usually    found    associated    with 

(303) 


304  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

impurities,  as  with  sand,  and  these  impurities  may  be 
so  abundant  as  to  seriously  reduce  its  value  for  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  uses. 

Who  first  discovered  the  agricultural  value  of  lime 
is  not  known.  Its  general  use  for  building  pur- 
poses antedates  mediaeval  history,  and  it  could  not 
have  been  long  in  use  in  the  trades  before  its  bene- 
ficial action  on  the  soil  must  have  been  discovered 
by  accident,  if  in  no  other  way.  Liming  land  was 
practiced  to  a  limited  extent  before  the  Christian 
era.  Soon  after  1785,  a  tyne  when  many  improved 
methods  and  improved  breeds  of  domestic  animals 
had  their  beginnings  in  Great  Britain,  the  practice 
of  liming  the  land  became  common  in  some  locali- 
ties.* In  both  England  and  Scotland  the  application 
of  occasional  large  dressings  of  lime,  100  to  300 
bushels  per  acre,  became  common  by  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  lack  of  thorough  drainage, 
the  growth  of  abundant  vegetation  and  the  absence 
of  sunshine  and  warmth  in  England  resulted  in  filling 
the  land  with  partially  decayed  organic  matter,  and 
all  combined  to  make  the  soil  heavy  and  acid.  Since 
drainage  by  means  of  underground  conduits  has  be- 
come common  in  Great  Britain,  the  practice  of  liming 
has  been  abandoned  in  many  cases,  and  where  it  is 
still  kept  up  much  smaller  applications  are  found  to 
produce  the  best  results. 

Lime   is    one    of    the    oldest    and    most    common 


*  A  book  upon  the  liming  of  land  appeared  in  Boston  in  1799.  This  was 
an  American  edition  of  James  Anderson's  "Essay  on  Quicklime,  as  a  Cement 
and  as  a  Manure.''—  L.  H.  B. 


Cover    Crops   to   Precede   IAming.  305 

amendments  or  indirect  fertilizers  in  some  localities, 
but  at  least  99  per  cent  of  the  arable  land  in  the 
United  States  has  never  been  limed,  nor  is  it  likely 
to  be  in  the  near  future.  The  virgin  soil  usually 
contains  an  abundance  of  available  nutrients.  The 
loose  texture  of  the  soil,  the  dry  climate  and  cloud- 
less skies,  so  common  west  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
all  tend  to  promote  nitrification  and  to  prevent 
acidity;  hence,  as  the  country  becomes  older,  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  lack  of  vegetable  mold  or  undecom- 
posed  organic  matter,  and  the  planting  of  cover 
crops  is  likely  to  precede  liming. 

In  all  this  vast  territory,  embracing  more  than 
one -third  of  the  arable  land  of  the  United  States, 
the  price  of  lime  has  been  so  great  as  to  preclude 
its  use  on  lands  even  where  the  limestone  and  the 
land  to  be  treated  were  in  juxtaposition.  In  other 
cases,  the  cost  of  transportation  equaled  or  exceeded 
the  first  cost  of  the  lime.  On  the  friable,  fertile 
soils  of  the  prairies  the  plow  liberated  year  by  year 
all  the  nourishment  which  the  crops  required.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  conditions  in  many  districts 
of  the  United  States  have  precluded  the  use  of 
lime  in  agriculture. 

When  first  removed  from  the  kiln,  lime  weighs 
about  75  pounds*  to  the  heaped  bushel;  that  from 
shells  weighs  less  than  that  from  limestone.  A  ton 
of  limestone  converted  into  caustic  lime  (CaO)  weighs 
between   1,100   and    1,200    pounds;    hence  it  is   econ- 

*  Seventy-five   pounds  of  stone   lime  and   50   pounds   of   air-slaked   lime   ar» 
sold  for  a  bushel  at  the  kilns  at  Uuiou  Springs,  N.  Y. 


306  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

omy  to  burn  the  lime  near  where  the  stones  are 
quarried,  since  it  weighs  but  three -fifths  as  much  as 
limestone.  In  slaking,  lime  takes  up  considerable 
quantities  of  water ;  hence  a  ton  of  slaked  or  hy- 
drated  lime  contains  really  but  three -fourths  as  much 
lime  as  a  ton  unslaked.  A  heaped  bushel  of  unslaked 
lime  makes  one  and  one -half  bushels  of  slaked  lime  ; 
therefore,  it  should  be  transported  before  it  is  slaked. 
When  caustic  lime  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  some 
time  it  absorbs  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  becomes  air- slaked  or  carbonate  of 
lime  (CaC03),  or  limestone.  It  is  now  in  the  form 
of  a  fine  powder,  much  finer  than  ground  lime- 
stone, and  is  of  some  value  as  an  indirect  fertilizer, 
and  furnishes  plant -food  when  applied  to  soils  which 
are  deficient  in  lime.  Old  pastures  and  sandy  soils 
frequently  respond  to  a  dressing  of  air- slaked  lime, 
but  in  most  cases  it  is  far  better  to  purchase  caustic 
lime,  and  by  adding  water  convert  it  into  the  hydrate 
of  lime,  which  acts  more  energetically  than  air -slaked 
lime  does. 

Recently  hydrated,  or  "biting"  lime,  applied  to 
sandy  soil  roughens  it;  that  is,  it  acts  upon  the  par- 
ticles of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  thereby  liberating 
the  mineral  matter.  Gradually  the  lime  passes  down- 
ward to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  where  it  may  be- 
come bound  up  with  some  of  the  liberated  mineral 
matter  and  the  finer  particles  of  earth,  and  forms  a 
hard-pan  of  greater  or  less  tenacity,  which  arrests 
the  too  free  passage  of  water  downward.  All  of 
these   complex    actions    improve    sandy    soils.     When 


Beneficial   Effects   of  Liming.  307 

soils  naturally  have  a  superabundance  of  lime,  similar 
action  may  take  place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form 
what  is  known  as  "lime -pan,"  which  may  be  nearly 
impervious  to  water,  and  hence  detrimental.  Nitri- 
fication usually  goes  on  too  rapidly  in  light  soils,  and 
hence  the  humus  is  depleted  and  the  power  to  hold 
moisture  weakened,  and  therefore  lime  is  not  usually 
applied  to  sandy  soils,  as  it  is  to  clay,  to  hasten 
nitrification.  The  beneficial  effects  of  lime  in  ar- 
resting the  too  free  passage  of  water  in  sandy  soils 
should  not  be  destroyed  by  plowing  at  different 
depths,  and  hence  care  should  be  taken  to  assist  the 
formation  of  a  solidified  sub-stratum  by  continuously 
plowing  at  the  same  depth,  thereby  securing  the 
beneficial  action  which  results  from  the  trampling  of 
the  horses  and  the  pressure  of  the  plow  on  the 
bottom    of    the    furrow.      (See  page  77.) 

Recent  experiments  have  thrown  much  light  on 
the  effects  of  liming  land,  yet  lime  acts  in  such  a 
variety  of  ways,  and  produces  such  complex  changes, 
that  a  wide  field  is  still  open  to  the  investigator. 
It  is  known  that  in  rare  cases  it  may  furnish 
needed  plant-food,  that  it  ('(institutes  from  1  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  ash  of  plants,  and  that  it  helps  to 
bring  about  physical,  chemical  and  biological  changes 
in  the  soil.  When  applied  to  clay  soils,  it  binds 
the  fine  particles  together,  or  flocculates  them.  This 
results  in  opening  channels  which  augment  friability 
and  porosity,  and  produces  conditions  which  allow 
the  freer  passage  of  water  downwards,  and  of  mois- 
ture upwards  by  capillarity;   air  and  heat  are  allowed 


308  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

freer  passage  into  and  through  the  land,  the  cost  of 
plowing  is  diminished,  locked  up  mineral  matter  lib- 
erated, nitrification  promoted,  and  a  more  comforta- 
ble environment  is  secured  for  plant  roots. 

Caustic  lime  decomposes  certain  mineral  com- 
pounds, especially  those  containing  potash,  and  makes 
them  available;  that  is,  changes  potential  into  actual 
plant-food.  It  also  corrects  acidity,  and  in  doing  so 
unfits  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  many  coarse  and 
undesirable  plants,  while  greatly  improving  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  growth  of  most  of  the 
higher  and  more  useful  kinds  of  plants.  Lime  acts 
chemically  on  the  soil  in  many  ways  Dot  well  un- 
understood,  but  its  power  to  form  useful  com- 
pounds, such  as  hydrated  silicates,  is  proved  beyond 
a  doubt.  It  is  believed  that  some,  if  not  most,  of 
the  available  mineral  fertilizing  matter  in  the  soil  is 
held  in  the  form  of  hydrated  silicates.  If  this  be 
so,  additional  light  is  thrown  on  the  beneficial  action 
of  lime  and  some  other  substances. 

Caustic  lime  acts  energetically  on  the  organic 
matter  in  the  soil ;  hence  beneficial  effects  may 
be  expected  when  it  is  applied  to  peaty  or  other 
soils  having  a  superabundance  of  undecomposed  veg- 
etable matter.  Clayey  soils,  because  of  their  ten- 
dency to  remain  cold,  moist  and  compact,  tend  to 
become  sour,  and  the  plant-food  which  they  contain 
is  inert.  All  this  produces  uncomfortable  conditions 
for  the  better  plants,  unless  an  unusual  amount  of 
labor  is  expended  in  fitting  the  soil.  An  applica- 
tion  of  caustic   lime   may   change   for   the   better,    in 


Lime    Influences    Nitrification.  309 

a  marked  degree,  many  or  all  of  these  undesirable 
conditions.  Since  clayey  lands  are  usually  too  com- 
pact at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  it  is  well  to  plow 
at  varying  depths,  shallow  in  spring  and  deep  in  the 
summer  and  fall,  that  the  tendency  to  form  a  hard- 
pan,  due  to  liberal  applications  of  lime,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  plow  and  the  tramping  of  the  horses' 
feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  may  be  largely 
overcome.  Dead  plants  or  other  organic  matter  can 
serve  as  plant -food  onhr  when  they  are  decomposed, 
and  the  albuminoids  changed  into  other  nitrogen- 
forms  and  the  mineral  matter  re -mineralized,  or  so 
far  parted  from  its  associates  as  to  be  acceptable  to 
growing  plants. 

Liming  land  usually  accelerates  nitrification  and 
fermentation.  It  may  correct  acidity  and  produce 
alkalinity,  but  if  the  alkalinity  is  too  great,  fer- 
mentation and  decay  decrease.  Usually  lime  is  ap- 
plied to  the  land  or  manure  in  such  small  quanti- 
ties as  to  hasten  instead  of  retard  fermentation  and 
nitrification.  Most  manures  are  injured  when  treated 
with  lime,  as  ammonia  is  likely  to  be  driven  off, 
but  it  may  be  used  advantageously  to  hasten  the 
rotting  of  coarse  manures,  such  as  are  composed 
largely  of  straw  and  maize  stalks,  if  they  are  piled 
in  layers  with  lime  between,  and  the  mass  thor- 
oughly wetted  and  covered  with  earth.  Liming  land, 
especially  that  which  contains  much  organic  matter, 
and  that  which  is  over-damp,  tends  to  prevent  rust 
and  smut,  and  malformation  of  the  roots  of  turnips, 
beets  and  similar  crops.      On  the  other  hand,  an   ap- 


310  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

plication  of  lime  in  any  form  is  believed  to  pro- 
mote the  scab  of  potatoes.  In  some  experiments,  con- 
ducted at  Cornell  in  1896,  to  determine  the  amounts 
of  soil  moisture  conserved  or  lost,  the  workmen  re- 
marked that  one  plat  was  "mealy,"  and  did  not 
crust  over,  as  the  others  did.  The  plat  referred  to 
proved  to  be  the  one  that  had  been  limed.  So  far, 
experiments  show  that  lime  does  not  kill  wire- 
worms,  slugs  and  beetles,  but  it  may  so  change  the 
character  of  the  soil  as  to  induce  them  to  find  more 
congenial  conditions. 

Lime  should  be  removed  from  the  kiln  soon 
after  it  is  burned,  and  placed  in  convenient  piles  on 
the  field  where  it  is  to  be  spread.  If  a  slight  de- 
pression is  made  and  the  ground  smoothed,  and  from 
three  to  five  bushels  are  thrown  in  a  pile  and  the 
mass  covered  with  earth,  it  will  slake  in  a  few  days 
if  the  ground  is  moist,  but  if  dry  some  water  should 
be  added  before  it  is  covered.  If  slaked  quickly  by 
a  large  addition  of  water,  the  mass  does  not  break 
up  into  as  fine  a  powder  as  when  slaked  slowly, 
with  the  air  largely  excluded.  Therefore,  to  secure 
the  best  and  cheapest  results,  the  slaking  should  pro- 
ceed only  moderately  fast  and  in  the  presence  of  as 
little  air  as  possible.  Lime  for  plastering -mortar  is 
prepared  by  placing  it  in  a  slaking  box  and  sub- 
merging in  water.  The  milk  of  lime  produced  is 
then  drawn  off,  mixed  with  enough  sand  to  form  a 
stiff  paste,  which  is  piled  up  and  left  from  two  to 
four  weeks,  that  all  the  particles  may  be  fully 
slaked,    otherwise    thev    mav   slake    in    the    wall     and 


Mild   and    Caustic   Lime.  311 

produce  "smallpox  pits."  It  will  be  seen  that  by  this 
method  the  air  is  largely  excluded  from  the  lime 
until  it  is  used,  thereby  preserving  its  caustic  and 
binding  or  flocculating  qualities.  Air -slaked  lime 
does  not  make  good  mortar,  neither  does  it  act  ener- 
getically on  the  soil,  since  it  is  in  its  mild,  not 
caustic,  state. 

What  has  been  said  about  slaking  lime  intended 
for  mortar,  is  to  emphasize  the  need  of  excluding 
air,  so  far  as  possible,  when  slaking  lime  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  until  it  is  applied  to  the 
land.  If  it  can  be  applied  to  and  incorporated  with 
the  fresh -turned  surface  soil,  in  the  caustic  state,  it 
will  be  far  more  efficient  than  when  applied  in  the 
mild,  or  air- slaked  condition.  True,  this  hydrated 
or  "biting"  lime  (Ca[0II]2),  will  become  mild  lime 
(CaC03),  but  before  fully  reaching  this  stage  it  will 
have  acted  beneficially  and  energetically,  and  when  it 
has  reached  that  state  it  will  have  lost  none  of  its 
usefulness  as  mild  lime. 

Lime  properly  slaked  is  difficult  to  handle  and 
spread,  as  it  runs  with  nearly  the  facility  of  water. 
The  earth  covering,  mixed  with  the  lime,  tends  to 
overcome  this  difficulty.  If  the  mixed  material  is 
thrown  onto  a  stone -boat  or  sled  it  can  be  spread, 
with  the  wind,  satisfactorily.  Since  lime  tends  to  sink 
into  the  soil,  it  is  best  applied  on  plowed  and  par- 
tially fitted  land,  and  theu  thoroughly  incorporated 
by  surface  tillage.  On  permanent  grass  lands,  for 
various  reasons,  it  is  best  applied  in  the  fall.  It  may 
be  predicted  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  where  lime 


312  The  Fertility   of  the   Land. 

is  likely  to  be  most  beneficial;  viz.,  on  sour,  peaty 
soils,  and  those  having  large  amounts  of  undecom- 
posed  vegetable  matter ;  on  heavy  or  clayey  lands, 
in  conjunction  with  barn  manures  and  other  coarse 
organic  substances;  and  on  sandy  lands,  if  in  con- 
junction with  a  system  of  green  manuring.  The 
old  saying  that  "  liming  the  land  makes  the  fathers 
rich  but  the  sons  poor,"  has  a  grain  of  truth  in  it, 
for  lime  may  easily  be  made  to  deplete  the  soil  of 
humus,  and  even  mineral  constituents,  to  the  point 
at  which  it  no  longer  produces  profitable  harvests; 
but,  when  judiciously  used,  in  conjunction  with 
crude  organic  matter,  it  is  often  one  of  the  cheapest 
of  the  indirect  fertilizers,  as  it  serves  to  liberate 
plant -food  which  without  it  would  long  remain  use- 
less. 

Wherever  lime  can  be  secured  cheaply,  from  10 
to  15  cents  per  bushel,  it  should  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  from  20  to  40  bushels  per  acre  in  a  small 
way  at  first,  and  the  results  most  carefully  noted; 
for  only  by  actual  application  can  it  be  certainly 
known  whether  or  not  it  will  pay.  Theorizing  may 
be  good,  analyses  of  the  soil  better,  but  the  way  to 
solve  all  such  problems  is  to  put  clean-cut  questions 
to  the  land  and  the  plants  which  grow  upon  it,  and 
while  listening  to  the  answers,  note  the  points  which 
have  been  settled  by  the  chemist  and  the  experi- 
menter, that  additional  light  may  be  thrown  upon 
what  is  seen,  or  appears  to  be  seen.  The  chemist 
in  the  laboratory  and  the  farmer  in  the  field  must 
work  together  in  the  future. 


Acidity   of  Soils.  313 

LIMING    TO    CORRECT    ACIDITY    OP    THE    SOIL. 

No  recent  experiments  with  lime  have  attracted 
more  attention  than  those  made  at  the  Rhode  Island 
Station,*  and  since  they  are  destined  to  be  far- 
reaching  in  their  results,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  quote 
them  freely.  Of  necessity,  but  brief  extracts  can 
be  made,  yet  it  is  hoped  that  the  student  will  be- 
come sufficiently  interested  to  read  the  full  text  of 
the  publication.  The  facts  reached  are  doubly  val- 
uable, since  they  give  the  results  secured  in  both 
field  and  laboratory,  and  the  only  regret  is  that 
space  does  not  permit  making  fuller  and  more  con- 
nected quotations. 

"So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  no 
one  in  this  country  has  thus  far  definitely  called  at- 
tention to  the  existence  of  an  injurious  degree  of 
acidity  in  uplands  or  naturally  well-drained  soils, 
and  at  the  same  time  pointed  out  a  simple  and 
practical  means  for  its  recognition.  American  agri- 
cultural chemists  appear  not  only  to  have  been  of 
the  opinion  that  an  injurious  degree  of  soil  acidity 
is  to  be  found  only  in  muck  and  peat  swamps,  and 
in  spots  where  stagnant  water  occurs,  but  they  make 
no  mention  of  making  tests  for  acidity  as  a  means 
of   recognizing  a  deficiency  of    carbonate  of    lime." 

"E.   W.  Hilgard,t  in  the  course  of  his  work  upon 

♦"The  Acidity  of  Uplands  Soils"  by  II.  .1.  Wheeler.  B.  L.  Hartwell  and 
J.  M.  Tucker:  being  a  portion  of  the  Eighth  Annua)  Report  of  the  Rhodf 
Island  Agricultural   Experiment   Station.    1895, 

t  Tenth    United  Kutos   Census, 


314  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

the  soils  of  the  southern  states,  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  the  sandy  pine  lands  of  Mississippi, 
has  called  attention  to  their  need  of  lime,  though 
we  find  no  mention  of  tests  for  acidity  having  been 
made  in  connection  therewith;  he  states,  however, 
in  a  private  communication,  that  the  recognition  of 
their  acidity  was  what  led  to  his  recommendation  of 
the  application  of  this  substance.  He  furthermore 
says:  'You  are  doubtless  right  in  thinking  that 
attention  should  be  more  definitely  called  to  the 
importance  of  soil  acidity  as  an  unfavorable  agent 
in  agriculture  outside  of  swamp  or  marsh  lands.' 
A.  Voelcker*  says  that  'There  is  a  ready  test  for 
ascertaining  whether  a  soil  is  likely  to  contain  an 
injurious  constituent.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
put  a  strip  of  litmus  in  contact  with  wet  soil;  if 
the  blue  color  of  the  test  paper  turns  rapidly  red,  the 
soil  is  certain  to  contain  something  injurious  to  plant 
life.'  The  soils  which  he  appears  particularly  to 
have  examined  were  reclaimed  marshes,  muck,  etc., 
or  what  would  be  termed  unusual  soils.  Several 
French  writersf  refer  to  the  acid  soils  of  Brittany, 
Limousin,  and  other  sections,  which  in  many  in- 
stances have  been  wonderfully  benefited  by  the  use 
of  lime.  Many  of  the  soils  referred  to  appear  to 
have  been  upland,  or  well  drained.  Schultz-Lupitz,t 
in  speaking  of  the   sandy  soil  of  his  section,  in  Ger- 

*  Journal  Royal  Agricultural  Society,   England,  1865,  p.  115. 

t  See  particularly  Muntz  and  Oirard,   Les  Engrais,  tome  3,  Pari*,  1881,  pp. 
100,  191. 

|  Die  Kalidungung  auf  leichtem   Bodeu.     Berlin,    1880,  i.  25. 


Opinions   of  Authorities.  315 

many,  refers  to  its  being  poor  in  lime,  and,  there- 
fore, becoming  sour  and  unfit  for  the  economical 
production  of  plants;  he  makes,  however,  no  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  litmus  paper  nor  of  any  other 
means  of  definitely  ascertaining  its  acidity,  but  ap- 
pears to  infer  that  it  was  acid  from  the  beneficial 
action  of  lime  upon  it.  E.  W.  Hilgard  says:* 
'"Saurer  Sandboden"t  is  the  expression  I  have  fre- 
quently heard  applied  in  Berlin  to  the  uplands  of 
that  region  and  the  Mark  Brandenburg  at  large.' 
W.  Detmart  states  distinctly  that  not  all  soils  which 
are  excessively  rich  in  humus  are  acid,  and,  on  the 
contrary,  that  sandy  soils  sometimes  give  an  acid  re- 
action; and  he  mentions  in  the  same  connection  the 
value  of  the  litmus  paper  test  as  an  indicator  of 
this  condition.  Th.  Hubener§  likewise  calls  attention 
to  the  frequent  acidity  of  sandy  soils. 

"S.  W.  Johnson  ||  states  that  'a  soil  that  is  fit 
for  agricultural  purposes  contains  little  or  no  free 
acid  except  carbonic  acid,  and  oftentimes  gives  an 
alkaline  reaction  with  test  papers,'  while  Storer^ 
asserts  that  'cultivated  soils,  though  sometimes  neu- 
tral to  test  papers,  as  a  rule  exhibit  a  faint  acid 
reaction;  and  experience  with  water  culture  has 
shown    that    slightly  acid    solutions    are    favorable    for 

•Quoted   from   a   private   communication   by   permission. 

t  Sour,  sandy   soil. 

I  Die   Landw.  Versuehs-Stationen,  14,  s.  277. 

i  Sehultze's  Lehrbueh   der  Chemie   fur  Landwirthe,    Vierte    Auflage,   a.    588. 

I  How  Crops  Feed,  p.  '229. 

^  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  148. 


316  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

the  growth  of  plants.  But  any  excess  of  soluble 
acids  in  \he  soil  would  be  highly  detrimental.' 
Jas.  F.  W.  Johnston,*  in  speaking  of  soils  which 
are  moist  and  where  much  vegetable  matter  abounds, 
says  that  'the  effect  of  this  superabundance  of  acid 
matter  is,  on  the  one  hand,  to  arrest  the  further 
natural  decay  of  the  organic  matter,  and,  on  the  other, 
to  render  the  soil  unfavorable  to  the  healthy  growth 
of  young  or  tender  plants.'  Voelckert  says  regard- 
ing the  action  of  soil  upon  litmus  paper :  '  If  the 
blue  color  of  the  test  paper  turns  rapidly  red,  the 
soil  is  certain  to  contain  something  injurious  to  plant 
life.  All  good  and  fertile  soils  either  have  no  effect 
upon  red  or  blue  litmus  paper,  or  show  a  slight 
alkaline  reaction;  that  is  to  say,  in  a  wet  condition 
they  restore  the  blue  color  to  reddened  litmus 
paper.'  A.  Mayer t  states  that  the  so-called  sour 
humus  is  really  somewhat  sour,  and  that  on  this  ac- 
count is,  without  doubt,  injurious  to  plants.  Shultz- 
Lupitz,  as  heretofore  cited,  speaks  of  sandy  soils  be- 
coming sour  and  unfit  for  the  profitable  production 
of  plants.  Mulder  §  claims  that  'a  good  soil  should 
turn  a  red  litmus  paper  blue'  (that  is,  it  should  be 
alkaline,  and  not  acid).  A.  Stutzer||  says  that  'a 
large  amount  of  acid  in  soils  is  injurious  to  all  cul- 


*  Lectures  on  the  Application  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  to  Agriculture,  New 
York,  p.  403. 

tA.  Voelcker,  Jour.  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  England,  1885,  p.  115. 

ILehrbuch  der  Agrikulturchemie.    Heidelberg,  1886,  s.  289. 

I  Chemie  der  Ackerkrume  Bd.    1.  s.  363,  364. 

I  Leitfaden  der  Dungerlehre,   Vierte  Auflage,   s.  78. 


Sour  Humus   and    Lime.  317 

tivated  plants.'  Th.  Hubener*  states  that  'hardly 
anything  has  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  the  vegetation  as  the  condition  of  the  humus.' 
In  this  respect  plants  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  one  which  thrives  best  where  the  humus  is 
sour,  another  which  refuses  to  grow  where  sour 
humus  is  present,  and  a  third  and  the  largest  class, 
the  individuals  of  which  can  accommodate  them- 
selves to  either  condition;  and  also  that  where  a 
soil  is  recognized  by  means  of  litmus  paper  as  being 
sour,  the  acidity  must  be  overcome  by  the  use  of 
marl   or   lime.  *        *        *        * 

Certain  cultivated  plants  have  been  found  to 
nearly  or  quite  succumb  until  lime  has  been  ap- 
plied, after  which  they  have  made  a  magnificent 
growth;  characteristic  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
common  red  clover,  spinach,  lettuce,  beets  and  tim- 
othy (Phleuin  pratense) .  Upon  our  soil,  when  left 
to  itself  for  some  time,  certain  plants  seem  eventu- 
ally to  predominate,  while  others  gradually  disappear. 
Considering  that  the  soil  contains  no  carbonate  of 
lime,  to  the  absence  of  which,  together  with  other 
basic  compounds,  its  acidity  is  apparently  due,  it  will 
be  obvious,  in  connection  with  what  has  been  said 
above,  that  the  natural  vegetation  would  be  of  a  type 
suited  to  such  a  soil.  Having  observed,  therefore, 
what  plants  thrive  here  naturally,  the  recognition 
of  similar  plants  elsewhere  would  lead  to  the  natu- 
ral conclusion  that  there  similar  conditions  may 
also   exist.      Those   plants   which   have   appeared    par- 

•Schulze's  Lehrbueh  der  Chernip  fur  Iiandwirthe.  Vierte  Anflag*.  ».  588,  58P. 


318  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

ticularly  characteristic  of  acid  soil  in  our  immediate 
vicinity  are  the  following :  Birdf oot  violet  ( Viola 
pedata) ,  wild  or  beard  grass  (Andropogon  scoparius) , 
species  of  St.  John's- wort  (Hypericum),  common  or 
soft  rush  (Juncus  effusus) ,  wood  rush  (Luzula  cam- 
pestris),  and  several  mosses;  the  appearance  of  com- 
mon sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella)  is  common  as  soon  as 
the  soil  is  cultivated.  In  addition  to  one  or  two  of 
the  plants  above  mentioned,  Ruffin  speaks  of  the 
pine  as  a  plant  which  thrives  best  upon  soil  poor  in 
lime.  Various  French*  and  German  writers  state 
that  clover  fails  to  thrive  upon  land  deficient  in  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and,  as  above  stated,  we  have  found 
the  same  to  be  true  of  timothy;  so  that  by  observing 
not  only  those  plants  which  thrive,  but  also  those 
which  fail  to  thrive,  indirect  evidence  of  the  needs 
of  the  soil  may  be,  in  a  measure,  afforded.  In  the 
course  of  observations  upon  the  nature  of  the  wild 
plants,  cultivated  grasses  and  clover,  not  only  in 
many  parts  of  Rhode  Island,  but  also  in  some  parts 
of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  the  soil  appears  to 
be  probably  in  somewhat  the  same  condition  as  our 
own;  quite  marked  changes  in  this  respect  are  notice- 
able as  one  travels  westward  from  Boston.  At  a 
distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  clover  and  tim- 
othy are,  in  certain  sections,  found  to  largely  disap- 
pear, and  farmers  in  such  sections  have  stated  that 
clover  cannot  be  made  to  grow,  and  that  timothy 
runs  out   quickly.      In  fact,    statements   to   the    same 

*Muntz  antf  Girard:    Les  Engrais,  tome  3,  p.  190:  also  Deherain:  Trait e  de 
Chimie  Agricole.  1892.  p.  531. 


Acidity    in    High    and    Loir    Land.  319 

effect  have  recently  come  to  our  notice  from  New 
York,  Connecticut  and  several  of  the  eastern  sea- 
board states." 

The  Rhode  Island  report  makes  the  following 
summary  of   the  literature: 

"The  removal  of  plants  from  the  soil,  and  the 
use  of  certain  fertilizers,  doubtless  exhaust  the  lime 
and  other  basic  ingredients  of  the  soil  more  rapidly 
than  would  be  the  case  were  nature  allowed  to  take 
her  course. 

"That  an  acid  condition  is  liable  to  result,  in 
consequence  of  the  above-mentioned  operations,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  soils  derived  from  rocks  de- 
ficient in  basic  ingredients,  we  believe  to  be  a  rea- 
sonable assumption. 

"While  some  plants,  like  clover,  timothy  and 
beets,  appear  to  be  injured  by  a  lack  of  carbonate  of 
lime  or  by  the  resulting  acidity  of  the  soil,  others 
appear  to  thrive  best  under  such  conditions. 

"A  strongly  marked  reddening  of  blue  litmus 
paper  seems  to  be  a  simple  and  effective  indication 
of  the  condition  of  a  soil  in  the  above-mentioned 
particulars.    . 

"The  value  of  a  satisfactory  method  for  determin- 
ing the  relative  acidity  of  soils  would  seem  to  be 
great. 

"A  dangerous  degree  of  acidity,  or  at  least  a  fatal 
lack  of  carbonate  of  lime,  appears  to  exist  in  upland 
and  naturally  well -drained  soils,  and  is  not  confined 
to  muck  and  peat  swamps  and  very  wet  lands,  as 
most    American  and   nianv    other    writers  seem   to    as- 


320  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

same,  in  view  of  which  it  appears  that  the  test  for 
acidity  should  be  more  generally  applied  to  such  soils. 

"That  this  condition  of  upland  soils  has  not  been 
more  fully  recognized  heretofore  is  not  surprising,  for 
the  reason  that  the  failure,  or  partial  failure,  of  cer- 
tain crops,  has  been  attributed  to  winter -killing,  poor 
germination  of  seeds,  drought,  excessive  moisture,  or 
attacks  of  insects  or  fungi.  Upon  soils  where  certain 
plants  are  injured  only  to  a  limited  extent  by  acidity, 
others  would  be  expected  to  thrive  best  of  all,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
cause  for  the  partial  failure  of  certain  crops  upon 
them  has  not  been  suspected. 

"The  inefficiency  of  land  plaster,  as  compared  with 
air-slaked  lime,  in  the  culture  of  beets,  and  in  over- 
coming the  ill  effect  of  sulfate  of  ammonia,  as  well 
as  the  highly  beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  caustic 
magnesia  and  carbonate  of  soda,  all  tend  to  further 
strengthen  the  position  that  the  fault  of  the  soil  in 
question  is  a  lack  of  basic  ingredients,  to  which  the 
presence  of  noxious  compounds,  which  may  partly  or 
wholly  give  rise  to  the  acid   reaction,  is  attributable." 

By  the  courtesy  of  Professor  H.  J.  Wheeler,  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Station,  I  am  permitted  to  make 
extracts  from  a  paper  recently  read  by  him  at  Wash- 
ington :  * 

"Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  at  Kingston,  R.  I.,  it  became  noticeable  that 


•"The  Recognition  of  the  Acidity  of  Upland  Soils  as  an  Indication  of 
their  Need  of  Calcium  Carbonate."  Read  before  the  Association  of  American 
Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  November  11,  1896. 


Failure   of   Timothy    and    Clover.  321 

the  farmers,  at  least  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
state,  grew  but  little  if  any  clover,  and  upon  in- 
quiry among  them,  it  was  stated  that  it  could  not  be 
grown,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  winter-killed.  The 
only  place  where  clover  could  be  seen  to  any  extent 
was  in  a  few  fields  near  stables  and  upon  an  occa- 
sional farm  where  wood  ashes  had  previously  been 
used.  Timothy  failed  to  endure  for  more  than  one  or 
two  years,  while  red  top  and  Rhode  Island  bent 
were  the  two  grasses  most  universally  found.  On 
seeding  land  upon  the  college  farm  with  clover  and 
mixed  grass  seed,  it  was  found  to  be  practically  im- 
possible to  secure  a  stand  of  timothy  and  clover, 
though  a  fair  crop  of  Rhode  Island  bent  and  red 
top  could  be  obtained.  It  was  observed  that  with 
an  increased  application  of  ammonium  sulfate,  the 
crop  of  Indian  corn  was  lessened  instead  of  in- 
creased, and  where  the  full  ration  of  nitrogen  in  this 
form  was  used,  the  yield  was  much  less  than  on  an 
adjacent  plat  treated  the  same  in  other  respects,  but 
where  nitrogen  was  not  applied.  This  condition  has 
continued  uninterruptedly  up  to  the  present  time. 

"In  searching  for  a  cause  for  the  ill  effect,  of 
the  ammonium  sulfate,  non-nitrification,  and  in  eon- 
sequence  of  a  poisonous  effect  of  the  ammonium 
sulfate  or  of  compounds  produced  by  its  reaction 
within  the  soil,  were  considered.  All  of  the  condi- 
tions essential  to  nitrification  seemed  to  be  right, 
provided  the  nitrifying  organisms  were  present,  unless 
perhaps  the  difficulty  was  due  to  an  unusual  acidity 
or   alkalinity  of   the  soil,  which   reaction   was   already 


322  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

well  known  to  exert  a  marked  influence  upon  nitri- 
fication in  various  media.  An  examination  of  the 
soil  by  means  of  blue  litmus  paper  revealed  the  fact 
that  it  was  decidedly  acid.  In  consequence,  the  idea 
of   the  use  of  lime  naturally  suggested  itself. 

"In  recognition  of  the  writings  of  American  agri- 
cultural chemists,  in  which  they  note  the  effect  of 
sourness  upon  the  growth  of  plants  in  lowlands  or 
wet  meadows,  as  well  as  those  of  European  writers, 
some  of  whom  do  not  confine  their  references  to 
swamp  lands  exclusively,  and  to  lowlands  naturally 
wet,  the  idea  suggested  itself  that  the  acidity  of  the 
upland  soil  at  Kingston  might  be  sufficient  to  exert 
a  marked  influence  upon  the  growth  of  various  agri- 
cultural plants.  Accordingly,  in  1893  an  experiment 
was  begun  which  has  been  continued  since  without 
intermission,  in  which  nearly  150  different  varieties  of 
plants  have  been  tested  in  this  particular.  In  order 
to  eliminate  in  this  experiment,  so  far  as  possible, 
the  influence  of  the  acidity  of  the  soil  upon  nitri- 
fication, sodium  nitrate  was  employed  upon  two  plats 
in  connection  with  muriate  of  potash  and  dissolved 
boneblack,  one  of  the  plats  receiving  an  additional  ap- 
plication of  air-slaked  lime.  In  the  course  of  this 
experiment,  some  of  the  most  striking  differences, 
not  only  in  members  of  the  same  family  of  plants, 
but  also  even  in  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus, 
have  been  observed.  When  fresh  applications  of  lime 
had  been  made  rye  was  benefited  little,  if  at  all, 
and  sometimes  apparently  injured,  while  oats  showed 
a  slight  benefit,  wheat  a  very  marked  one,  and  barley 


Effects   of  Lime   on    Melons.  323 

even  more  than  wheat.  Serradella,  lupines  and  one  or 
two  other  leguminous  plants  have  been  invariably  in- 
jured by  liming,  while  red  clover,  peas  and  certain 
others  have  been  benefited  decidedly  thereby.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  instances  is  that  of  watermelons 
and  muskmelons.  The  former  in  two  trials  were  in- 
jured by  liming,  and  in  the  second  trial  in  a  most 
serious  degree;  while  the  latter  were  a  total  failure 
where  lime  was  not  applied."        *        *        * 

"In  the  course  of  these  experiments  it  has  been 
found  that  calcium  sulfate  does  not  prevent  the  ill 
effect  of  ammonium  sulfate,  while  air-slaked  lime 
does  it  effectually.  Magnesium  sulfate  fails  likewise, 
while  caustic  magnesia  is  highly  effectual." 

"From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  great  probability  that  the  larger  portion  of  the 
state  of  Rhode  Island  is  suffering  from  a  defi- 
ciency of  carbonate  of  lime,  a  fact  which  in  many 
instances  would  not  have  been  surmised  from  a  de- 
termination of  calcium  oxid  in  a  hydrochloric  acid 
extract  of  the  soil,  for  in  the  soil  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Kingston  there  was  found  upon  the 
hill,  by  this  method,  .45  per  cent  of  calcium  oxid, 
and  upon  the  plain  .57  per  cent,  in  both  of  which 
eases  one  would  have  been  disinclined  to  believe  that 
such  a  serious  deficiency  of  carbonate  of  lime  existed. 
In  one  experiment  at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment 
Station,  gypsum  was  applied  at  such  a  rate  that  the 
equivalent  of  .2  per  cent  of  calcium  oxid  was  pres- 
ent in  the  soil,   vet    without    overcoming  the   ill    effect 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

of  ammonium  sulfate.  In  another  experiment,  gyp- 
sum representing  about  .13  per  cent  of  calcium  oxid 
failed  to  have  the  same  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
growth  of  beets  and  barley  as  an  equivalent  amount 
in  form  of  air -slaked  lime.  It  must  be  obvious, 
therefore,  that  in  certain  instances  soils  may  contain 
even  a  high  percentage  of  lime,  all  of  which  may  be 
in  such  combination  within  the  soil  that  an  acid  re- 
action is  possible,  whereby  plants  are  injured,  even  if 
nitrates  are  supplied,  in  which  case  calcium  carbon- 
ate or  other  alkaline  agents  are  efficient  remedies  It 
will  be  seen,  furthermore,  that  where  such  soil -con- 
ditions exist,  a  test  for  acidity  gives  a  better  indi- 
cation of  the  needs  of  the  soil  in  respect  to  lime 
than  an  analysis  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  extract, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  soils,  not  only 
in  Rhode  Island,  but  some  also  from  Connecticut, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  Virginia  and  other  states, 
have  been  tested  in  our  laboratory  and  found  acid, 
and  in  view  of  the  actual  demonstration  of  the  value 
of  lime  in  the  culture  of  beets  in  various  parts  of 
Rhode  Island,  it  must  be  obvious  that  agricultural 
chemists  should  give  more  attention  to  this  important 
factor  in  their  examinations  of  soils.  Most  of  the 
soils  upon  which  lime  has  proved  so  beneficial  in  con- 
nection with  the  culture  of  beets,  and  several  where 
clover  has  likewise  been  benefited  in  a  most  wonder- 
ful manner,  belong  essentially  to  that  group  of  soils 
which  would  be  considered  as  upland  and  naturally 
well  drained,  and  would  not  be  classed,  under  any  cir* 
cumstances,    as    naturally   wet,    or    be    spoken    of    as 


Comparative     Yields    Illustrated. 


325 


'swamps'  or  'morasses.'  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  question  of  the  occurrence  of  acidity  in  up- 
land or  naturally  well -drained  soils,  even  though  it  is 


m 


Fig.  40.     Experiments  with  lettuce  upon  aeid  soils. 

almost  unmentioned  by  American  agricultural  writers 
us  ;i  matter  of  importance,  is  deserving,  in  certain 
sections  of  this  country,  of  perhaps  even  more  atten- 
tion than  it  has  received   in   Europe." 

In  order  to  still  further  emphasize  the  importance 
of  these  experiments  in  correcting  the  acidity  of  the 
soil,    four    pictures    of    comparative    yields    are    taken 


Fig.  41.    Red  table  beets  grown  respectively  with  lime,  gypsum,  and  no  alkali. 


from  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Station.  Fig.  40  shows  yields  with  lettuce.  The  two 
plants    at   the   left  are   representatives  of   plats   which 


326 


The    Fertility   of  the   Land. 


received  sodium  carbonate,  the  end  one  a  full  ration 
and  the  second  one  a  half  ration.  Plats  (repre- 
sented at  the  right)  which   had   no   sodium   carbonate 


'    -—-■'"   ■  -  •■        


Fig.  42.    Sugar  beets  treated  like  those  in  Fig.  41. 

produced  no  plants.  Fig.  41  shows  comparative 
yields  of  red  table  beets.  The  two  piles  at  the  right 
received  no  lime;  those  in  the  middle  received  land 
plaster;  and  the  two  piles  at  the  left  had  air -slaked 
lime.       Fig.  42   is   illustrative  of   the   yields   of  sugar 


Fig.  43.     Mangolds  without  and  with  lime. 

beets,  the  treatment  being  in  the  same  sequence  as  in 
Fig.  41.  Fig.  43  shows  mangolds.  The  pile  at  the 
right  was  from  a  limed  plat,  and  that  at  the  left  from 


Use   of  Oypsum    Discontinued.  327 

an  unlimed   plat.     Both  also  received  muriate  of   pot- 
ash, dissolved  bone-black  and  nitrate  of   soda. 

GYPSUM,  OR  LAND  PLASTER. 

The  practice  of  sowing  small  quantities  of  gyp- 
sum, or  sulfate  of  lime  (CaS04)  on  clover  fields  soon 
after  the  plants  start  in  the  spring,  and  on  maize 
and  potatoes  when  a  few  inches  high,  was  common 
in  many  localities  in  the  United  States  wherever 
the  fields  were  within  easy  reach  of  the  plaster  beds, 
from  about  1835  to  18G5,  since  which  time  its  use 
has  been  largely  abandoned.  In  early  days  the  ap- 
plication of  one  or  at  most  two  bushels  per  acre 
on  clover  not  infrequently  resulted  in  increasing  the 
yield  of  hay  from  20  to  50  per  cent.  As  time  passed, 
it  was  observed  that  gypsum  failed  to  produce  the 
old-time  results.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that 
the  quality  of  the  gypsum  had  deteriorated,  but  a 
few  experiments  with  that  of  known  composition 
showed  that  the  trouble  was  not  all  due  to  the 
poor  quality  of  the  material,  though  some  of  the 
gypsum  on  the  market  gave  evidence  of  not  being  up 
to  a  high  standard,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
table  of  analyses  made  by  Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Cornell  University,  1879.  He  precedes  the  table  with 
the   following   explanatory   note: 

"Ordinary  plaster,  as  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, owes  its  value  to  the  sulfate  of  lime  that  it 
contains,  and  which,  in  the  following  table,  is  des- 
ignated   as    pure     plaster;     the    other    ingredients    art- 


The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


chiefly  carbonate  of  lime  and  entirely  worthless  insol- 
uble  matters." 


Insoluble 

Pure 

Locality. 

By  whom  sampled 

matter. 

plaster 

Nova  Scotia. 

Station. 

.76 

96.9 

Clockville,  N.  Y. 

Canastota  Farmers' 

Club.          8.62 

66.78 

Chittenango,  N.  Y. 

it 

6.08 

82.49 

Cottons,  N.  Y. 

.. 

13.04 

67.5 

Wampsville,  N.  Y. 

" 

11.1 

55.5 

Fayetteville,  N.  Y. 

.. 

7.58 

77.25 

Cayuga  Beds,  N.  Y. 

Undetermined. 

72.67 

Onondago  County. 

5.68 

77.61 

Onondago  Co.  Mills. 

F. 

L.  Kilburn. 

Undetermined. 

48.57 

Springport  Beds. 

D 

r.  S.  M.  Babcock. 

8.19 

66.74 

Gypsum  is  now  used  to  some  extent  on  the  floors 
and  roost  platforms  of  hen  houses,  and  on  the  floors 
of  cow  and  horse  stables,  to  fix  the  ammonia  which 
tends  to  escape,  and  to  dry  and  sweeten  the  stables. 
It  is  believed  that  this  indirect  way  of  reaching 
the  plant  is  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  direct 
method,  and  that  the  valuable  results  reached  in  the 
barns  nowise  injures  the  effects  which  might  be 
secured  from  a  direct  application.  It  requires  400 
parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  of  gypsum;  hence, 
an  application  of  from  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre 
is  likely  to  be  as  beneficial  as  a  larger  quantity. 
Gypsum  should  not  be  applied  to  growing  potatoes 
or  to  land  intended  for  growing  them,  for  the  same 
reason  that  lime  is  withheld;  viz,  a  tendency  to  in- 
crease  the   disease   known    as   scab. 

Formerly  it  was  believed  that  the  marked  bene- 
ficial results  of  a  light  application  of  gypsum,  es- 
pecially  on   clover   and   maize,  were    produced   by  the 


Action  of  Gypsum.  329 

action  of  the  gypsum  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
the  plants,  enabling  them  to  conserve  moisture;  that 
is,  it  prevented  rapid  transpiration  from  their  sur- 
faces, and  hence  carried  the  plants  safely  through 
periods  of  drought.  Beneficial  effects  of  gypsum 
could  not  be  due  to  the  lime  which  it  contains, 
since  the  quantity  applied  is  infinitesimal;  100 
pounds,  of  the  average  composition  of  the  ten  sam- 
ples given  in  the  preceding  tables,  would  contain 
but  26  pounds  of  lime.  It  is  now  believed  that 
gypsum  acts  upon  the  double  silicates,  and  liberates 
and  makes  available  the  potash  which,  in  the  absence 
of  the  gypsum,  would  be  unavailable.  It  may  also 
take  up  and  fix  small  quantities  of  ammonia  from 
the  air.  Bare  soils  treated  with  gypsum  are  found 
to  contain  more  moisture  in  dry  weather  than  those 
which  are  untreated.  .  Whether  it  produces  the  result 
by  conserving  moisture,  or  by  taking  it  from  the 
atmosphere,  or  acts  in  both  directions,  is  not  cer- 
tainly known.  When  arable  soils  have  been  depleted 
of  a  part  of  their  potash,  it  may  be  better  to  apply 
potash  than  to  set  free  the  small  amount  remain- 
ing in  the  soil  by  the  use  of  gypsum,  especially 
when  phosphates  are  used,  for  they  contain  a  lary;e 
percentage  of  gypsum,  which  is  secured  by  treating 
insoluble  phosphates  with  sulfuric  acid:  the  latter 
unites  with  the  lime  and  forms  sulfate  of  lime,  or 
gypsum.  Therefore,  whenever  phosphates  are  used 
additional  gypsum  would  be  unnecessary. 

In    speaking    of     "  Western     and    Central     Prairie 
Soils,"     in     Bulletin     30    of    the     Minnesota     Agricul 


330  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

tural  Experiment  Station,  page  173,  Professor  Snyder 
says: 

"The  indirect  action  of  land  plaster  (gypsum)  on 
these  soils  in  liberating  plant -food,  particularly  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  is  unusually  marked.  Experi- 
ments conducted  in  the  laboratory  have  shown  that 
small  amounts  of  gypsum  are  quite  active  in  render- 
ing potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  even  nitrogen,  solu- 
ble in  the  soil  water.  It  is  not  the  land  plaster  itself 
that  furnishes  the  food,  but  it  is  the  power  that  it 
possesses  in  making  the  mineral  matters  available  that 
are  already  in  the  soil.  Land  plaster  acts  more  as  a 
stimulant  and  not  as  a  direct  fertilizer,  and  if  not 
used  to  excess  it  will  be  a  profitable  fertilizer  to  use 
on  these  soils,  especially  to  bring  in  grass  and 
clover." 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  why 
gypsum  fails  to  produce  the  marked  results  it  did 
when  the  soil  contained  large  stores  of  potash 
which  only  needed  to  be  liberated  to  become  useful, 
and  that  by  the  use  of  phosphate  or  superphosphate 
a  double  benefit  may  be  secured,  as  they  may  provide 
phosphoric  acid  directly  and  potash  indirectly, —  two 
necessary  elements  of  plant  growth.  Whenever  gyp- 
sum fails  to  produce  marked  beneficial  results,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  potash  would  be  beneficial.  Not- 
withstanding what  has  been  said,  the  use  of  small 
quantities  of  gypsum  about  the  henneries,  stables  and 
manure  heaps  should  not  be  diminished,  but  rather 
increased. 

The  alkali  soils  so  common  west  of   the  115th  me- 


Evaporation    Arrested.  331 

ridian  may  in  many  cases  be  successfully  tilled  if  an 
application  of  gypsum  is  made.  Deep  plowing  and 
frequent  surface  tillage  may  also  be  made  to  assist  in 
reclaiming  these  lands.  Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard,  of 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University 
of  California,  in  his  report  in  1889,  on  the  treat- 
ment of  alkali  soils  which  contain  such  large  per- 
centages of  "black  alkali"  (carbonate  of  soda,  or 
sal-soda),  and  also  the  less  harmful  "white  alkali,"  or 
sodium  sulfate,  says:  "The  remedies  suggested  are 
largely  based  upon  the  diminution  of  surface  evapo- 
ration, the  prevention  of  the  formation  of  surface 
crusts,  and,  in  case  of  the  presence  of  the  most  nox- 
ious ingredient,  carbonate  of  soda,  its  neutralization 
by  means  of  land  plaster,  which  converts  it  into  a 
harmless  neutral  salt."  "  The  analyses  having  fur- 
ther shown  the  presence  in  most  of  the  alkali  salts 
of  large  supplies  of  potash  salts,  soluble  phosphates, 
and  nitrates,  the  high  and  lasting  productiveness  of 
the  land  when  reclaimed  has  been  placed  beyond 
all  cavil,  and  has,  in  numerous  cases  of  intelligent 
treatment,  been  amply  confirmed  by  experience." 

The  above  emphasizes  the  fact  that  soils  may 
contain  an  abundance  of  potential  fertility,  but  fail 
to  respond  to  superior  tillage.  In  like  manner  many 
soils  with  no  injurious  carbonate  of  soda  do  not 
give  full  harvests,  not  for  lack  of  potential  fertility, 
but  because  some  one  or  two  factors  necessary  to 
full    production    are    not    seen,    or   are    ignored. 

The  value  of  both  salt  and  gypsum,  when  used 
on   friable   soils,  for  conserving  moisture  or  for  secur- 


332  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

ing  it  from  the  air,  has  long  been  known,  but  no  ex- 
tended use  has  been  made,  at  least  not  in  this 
country,  of  a  mixture  of  salt  and  gypsum,  to  the 
surface  soil.  Since  plants  too  frequently  suffer  for 
lack  of  moisture  during  considerable  periods  in  the 
summer  months,  it  might  be  wise  for  the  farmer  to 
make  applications  of  this  mixture  in  a  large  way, 
since  both  gypsum  and  salt  are  inexpensive.  The 
following  table  briefly  sets  forth  the  results  of  some 
investigations  at  Cornell:* 

Application  per  acre. 

Plat  1 300  lbs.  gypsum.  ~|        Excess   of    moisture    in    first    8 

300   "     salt.  I  inches  of  Plat  1  over  Plat  4,  12,903 

Plat  4  (adjoining)  untreated.  J    pounds. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  select  field  plats  of 
exactly  uniform  surface  and  subsoil  texture  or  fer- 
tility, hence  there  is  need  of  verifying  plat  experi- 
ments in  pots  filled  with  soil  of  uniform  texture  and 
composition.  Unglazed  8 -inch  flower  pots  filled  with 
17  pounds  each  of  loamy  soil  were  placed  in  a 
greenhouse  July  11.  One  pound  of  water  was  added 
to  each  pot  July  20,  24  and  28,  and  2  pounds  on 
August  2,  8  and  11, —  9  pounds  in  all  to  each  pot. 
A  determination  of  moisture  on  August  16  showed 
that  the  pot  treated  to  half  a  pound  of  salt  and 
gypsum  contained  12.09  per  cent  moisture,  while  the 
untreated  pot  contained  6.01  per  cent,  or  less  than 
half  as  much.t 


*  Second  Annual  Report  Cornell  University  Exp.  Station,  1882-3. 
t  Unpublished  experiments,  Cornell  University  Exp.  Station. 


Variation   in    Ashes.  333 

ASHES. 

The  value  and  composition  of  wood -ashes  vary  so 
much,  owing  to  the  kinds  of  wood  from  which  they 
are  produced,  the  intensity  of  the  fire  when  the  wood 
is  burned,  and  the  care  used  in  storing  them,  that 
their  agricultural  value  can  never  be  known  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  without  having  them  analyzed. 
Large  amounts  (such  as  car-load  lots)  are  usually 
made  up  of  many  small  lots  purchased  at  the  farms. 
These  vary  greatly,  and  as  the  various  purchases  are 
seldom  thoroughly  mixed,  it  is  difficult  to  get  a 
sample  which  fairly  represents  an  average,  and, 
therefore,  in  all  cases,  except  where  the  ashes  are 
uniform  in  character,  they  have  to  be  purchased  with- 
out a  full  knowledge  of  their  composition. 

Nevertheless,  a  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
a  large  number  of  samples  helps  the  purchaser  to 
judge  more  correctly  as  to  the  value  of  unanalyzed 
ashes  than  he  could  without  such  knowledge,  espe- 
cially if  something  can  be  learned  as  to  where  and 
how  they  were  produced. 

The  following  tables  are  submitted,  with  the  belief 
that  they  contain  some  value  when  studied  by  the 
intelligent  reader: 

TABLE   LXXXIII. 

Canada  hard-wood  ashes. 

(Sold  as  such.) 

Average  of  fifteen  analyses  made  by  various  stations. 

Por  cen». 

Potash f.,17 

Phosphoric  arid 1 .88 


334  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Various  woods. 
The  following  are  the  results  of  analyses  made  at  various  stations  ; 
in  most  cases  but  one  determination  was  made  : 

Phos.  acid,    Potash, 

per  cent,  per  cent. 

Soft  wood,  taken  after  heavy  rains 64  3.02 

"         "  "         "  "  "     1.5  2.62 

Pine     "  "        "  "  "     66  1.53 

Spruce,  from  boiler  furnace 1.4  4.39 

Cedar  ashes 1.91  5.09 

Spruce,  from  boiler  furnace 1.27  1.93 

1.47  5.2 

"        tan  bark 1.44  2.1 

Soft  wood 1.78  4.65 

Hard"      3.  8.46 

"        "       2.56  9. 

Birch  twigs  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter. . .     5.89  4.86 

White  ash 1.29  5.23 

Maple  and  birch 2.42  7.35 

"      birch,  beach,  ash  and  elm 1.96  8.41 

"      and  birch 2.06  4.87 

Mixed  stove  ashes 1.48  7.7 

"       heater    "     1.28  8.69 

Maple  and  birch 2.09  6.35 

Florida  hickory 4.4  2.84 

Kentucky  hickory 1.3  1.75 

41.8  106.04 

Average 1.99  5.05 

Wood  ashes. 
(Origin  unknown.) 
One  hundred  and  three  analyses  by  the  Massachusetts  Experiment 
Station  give  the  following  : 

Average,    Extreme  range, 
per  cent.      *  per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 1.65  .5  to   3. 

Potash 5.3  2.     "10. 

Forty-three  analyses  made  by  the  Connecticut  Station  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 1.42 

Potash 4.96 

Average  of  both \    ' 

>-  5.13 


Coal   and    Cotton -seed   Ashes.  335 

The  average  of  the  182  analyses  given  above  is 
5.26  per  cent  of  potash  and  1.65  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  Whatever  value  may  be  given  to  the 
above  averages,  the  fact  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  variation  in  content  and  values  in  the 
various  samples  is  great. 

In  respect  to  coal -ashes,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
have  no  value  as  plant-food.  (See  Appendix.)  In 
rare  cases  they  seem  to  exert  some  beneficial  action 
upon  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil,  but,  in 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  best  use  which  can 
be  made  of  thorn  is  to  put  them  on  roads. 

COTTON -SEED    HULL   ASHES. 

Iii  preparing  cotton-seed  for  extracting  the  oil,  the 
hulls  or  bran  of  the  seed  are  removed.  Some  of  them 
air  burned  as  fuel  under  boilers,  and  some  are  fed  to 
cattle.  The  composition  of  the  ash  of  hulls  is  no 
more  uniform  than  that  of  wood -ashes,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  mixed  with  wood  ashes  of  inferior  qual- 
ity, and   other  substances. 

The  average  of  six  analyses  made  at  the  Connecti- 
cut Station  is  as  follows: 


Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 9.58 

Potash 22.95 


Value 

per  ton. 

$13.41 

20.(15 

Kxtreme  range 

per  cent. 
5.       to  17.72 
10.38  "  32.79 

s*34.0(> 


The    average   of    ten  analyses    from    the    Massachu- 
setts, Alabama  and  Arkansas  Stations  is  as  follows  : 


336  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 


Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 9.89 

Potash 23.36 


Value 

Average  of  both. 

per  ton. 

Per  cent. 

$13.85 

9.73 

20.12 

22.65 

$33.97 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  percentages  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  vary  as  widely  in  cotton -seed  hull 
ashes  as  in  wood  ashes.  This  is  probably  not  due  to 
adulteration,  but  to  the  kinds  of  fuel  burned  under 
the  boilers  in  conjunction  with  the  hulls.  Frequently 
pine  wood  is  used  in  part,  and  if  reference  is  made 
to  Table  LXXXIII.  it  is  seen  that  ashes  from  pine 
may  contain  not  more  than  .6(>  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  1.53  per  cent  of  potash.  It  is 
evident  that  if  pine  wood  forms  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  fuel  used  to  supplement  the  hulls 
the  value  of  the  resultant  ashes  will  be  materially 
reduced.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  purchase  ashes  on 
a  guaranteed  analysis,  since  it  is  seen  that  one  sup- 
ply may  be  worth  three  times  as  much  as  another. 
Ashes  of  a  good  quality  appear  to  improve  the 
physical  texture  of  the  land,  as  well  as  to  furnish 
valuable  plant -food  in  a  most  acceptable  form. 

RIVER    AND    SWAMP    MUD,    AND    PEAT. 

Six  analyses   of    river  and   swamp   mud   from   va- 
rious Stations   give  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water   69.2 

Nitrogen 32 

Phosphoric  acid 11 

Potash 08 


Peat   as   an    Absorbent.  337 

Eight  analyses  of  peat  from  various  Stations  give 
an  average  of  .67  per  cent  nitrogen.  Three  analyses 
from  various  Stations  give  an  average  of  .21  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  .13  per  cent  potash.  How 
much  of  the  various  substances  were  available  is  not 
stated. 

If  the  above  percentages  of  valuable  constituents 
are  compared  with  those  given  in  Tables  I.  and  II. 
(pages  12  and  14),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  swamp 
muck  and  peat  are  not  richer  than  the  good  soils, 
with  the  exception  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  peat, 
which,  without  doubt,  is  far  less  available  than  it 
is  in  good  soil.  Peat,  if  dried,  may  be  used  as  an 
absorbent  for  liquid  manure,  not  so  much  for  its 
inherent  value  as  for  conserving  the  nitrogen  in  the 
manure,  and  for  improving  the  condition  of  the 
stables. 

MARL. 

Twenty -two  analyses  of  marl  from  Kentucky  Sta- 
tion (character  not   specified)   gave  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 047 

Potash 2.2 

Lime 1.11 

Three  analyses  from  the  Connecticut  Station  give 
an  average  of : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 1.35 

Potash 5,43 

Twenty-four  analyses  from   the    Maryland  Station  : 
w 


338  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Extreme  range. 
Per  cent.      Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 38  1.    to  2. 

Potash 1.39  2.5  "  3. 

Seven  analyses  of  fossil  marl  by  the  Kentucky 
Station  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 23 

Potash 1.17 

Six  analyses  of  shell  marl  by  the  Kentucky  Sta- 
tion : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 31 

Potash 59 

The  potential  plant -food  in  marls  is  not  readily 
available,  and  hence  is  of  less  value  per  unit  than 
when  contained  in  high-grade  commercial  fertilizers. 
Liberal  applications  of  marl  are  usually  beneficial,  but 
its  value  per  ton  is  so  small  that  it  can  only  be  used 
near  the  beds  where  it  is  found. 


MUCK. 

Ten  analyses  of  muck  made  by  the  Connecticut 
Station  give  an  average  of  62  per  cent  water  and 
.63  per  cent  nitrogen.  Ten  analyses  of  partially  dry 
muck   from  various  stations   give  an  average  of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water 27.78 

Nitrogen 1 .02 

Phosphoric  acid 23 

Five  analyses  from  the  Connecticut  Station  give 
an  average  of : 


Muck   is   Slow   in   its   Action.  339 

Per  cent. 

Water 47.85 

Nitrogen 65 

Phosphoric  ucid 16 

Seven  samples  from  various  Stations  give  an  ave- 
rage of  : 

Per  cent. 

Water 34.87 

Nitrogen 1 . 

Phosphoric  acid 25 

Potash 39 

It.  is  probable  that  a  large  portion  of  the  plant- 
food  in  muck  is  insoluble;  if  so,  its  value  would  be 
much  less  than  at  first  glance  might  be  supposed. 
However,  muck  is  often  a  very  excellent  dressing  for 
improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  either  to 
break  up  and  loosen  hard  clays,  or  to  increase  the 
water-holding  capacity  and  to  lessen  the  leaching  of 
light  sands. 

SALT. 

Common  salt,  or  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl),  is 
seldom  applied  to  the  land,  although  it  has  long 
been  known  that  it  sometimes  increases  productive- 
ness, promotes  brightness  and  strength  of  straw  of 
the  cereals,  when  applied  in  moderate  quantities  on 
certain  classes  of  soils,  and  acts  in  other  ways  which 
are  not  well  understood.  Its  application  has  proved 
to  be  of  no  benefit,  or  positively  harmful,  quite  as 
often  as  it  has  been  beneficial. 

Several    species    of   herbivorous    animals,  when    not 


340  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

near  the  sea-coast,  have  a  fondness  for  salt,  which, 
if  judiciously  gratified,  is  beneficial  to  the  animals, 
especially  in  the  case  of  cows  in  milk.  It  improves 
their  appetites,  increases  their  flow  of  milk,  and  indi- 
rectly may  facilitate  the  churning  of  cream.  From 
this  it  would  be  natural  to  conclude  that  the  plants 
are  unable  to  secure  enough  salt  to  fully  satisfy  the 
animals  which  eat  them,  and  that  in  many  cases 
light  applications  of  salt  might  be  made  to  indi- 
rectly increase  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  there- 
fore promote  the  welfare  of  the  animal  and  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  its  products. 

Salt,  applied  at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  pounds 
per  acre,  may  also  assist  the  soil  in  conserving 
moisture,  and  in  securing  moisture  from  the  air. 
Certain  it  is  that  land  treated  with  salt  contains 
more  moisture  in  dry  weather  than  that  which  is 
untreated.  The  application  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  salt  and  gypsum  darkens  the  soil,  and  by 
its  action  tends  indirectly  to  furnish  moisture  near 
the  surface  for  the  use  of  plants. 

A  solution  of  salt  may  be  made  to  conserve 
fertility  in  manure  heaps,  especially  when  too  rapid 
decomposition  is  taking  place,  as  is  likely  to  occur 
when  manures  containing  large  amounts  of  coarse 
bedding  and  the  voidings  of  horses  are  placed  in 
large  piles. 

The  use  of  salt  to  destroy  wire -worms  is  often 
recommended.  Extended  experiments  have  shown 
that  an  application  of  some  eight  tons  to  the  acre, 
which   would    be   necessary   to    kill    the    wire  worms, 


General    Conclusions.  341 

would   be   an   amount   so   great   as   to   destroy  nearly 
all  vegetation.* 

It  has  been  briefly  shown  how  salt,  lime  and 
gypsum  may,  under  certain  conditions,  be  made  to 
promote  plant  growth;  just  when  and  where  these 
conditions  may  be  present  can  be  determined  only 
by  careful  observation  and  experimentation.  Now 
that  all  of  these  indirect  fertilizers  and  amendments, 
conservers  of  fertility  and  moisture,  have  become 
cheap  and  abundant,  the  use  of  salt  and  lime  at 
least  should  become  more  common,  with  the  view 
of  determining  their  usefulness  in  any  given  case, 
when  used  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  other  sub- 
stances. 

•See  Bull.  33,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 

NOT*.— The  attention  of  the  reader  is  again  called  to  the  term  "value 
per  ton,*'  which  term  has  been  used  here  and  in  preceding  chapters.  When 
unmodified,  the  term  is  misleading,  yet  it  appears  to  be  the  best  that 
can  be  used.  The  plant-food  in  crude  and  uneoncentrated  fertilizing  ma- 
terials is  likely  to  be  less  available  than  in  high-grade  fertilizers.  From 
80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  valuable  constituents  of  the  latter,  and  only  from 
•r>  to  10  per  cent,  and  even  less,  of  the  former,  may  be  readily  avail- 
able. The  determinations  from  which  the  above  tables  of  muck  and  marl 
are  made  seldom  give  the  condition  or  availability  of  their  plant-food,  and, 
therefore,  their  true  value  is  not  known.  Reliable  conclusions  can  only 
be  reached  by  carefully  noting  the  cost  of  transportation  and  application,  and 
the  effect  on  the  soil  and  crop. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

ORE  EN  MANURES    AND    FALLOWS. 

Having  done  what  he  can  to  improve  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  his  farm  by  means  of  superior  till- 
age, barn  manures,  fertilizers,  and  various  amend- 
ments, the  farmer  will  now  inquire  about  the  use 
of  clover  and  the  merits  of  fallowing.  The  subject 
of  green  manures  is  itself  of  sufficient  importance 
for  an  entire  volume.  Therefore  only  the  most 
cursory  attention  can  be  given  here,  and  it  is  treated 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  rather  than  from 
that  of  the  chemist. 

CLOVERS. 

In  many  sections  of  the  United  States  the  clovers 
may  be  made  to  add  materially  to  the  productive 
power  of  the  soil.  Their  numerous  broad  leaves 
form  a  shade  which  prevents  useless  evaporation  from 
the  land.  Most  of  them  are  superior  digesters  of 
tough  plant -food;  that  is,  they  have  the  power  of 
securing  food  where  many  other  plants  would  lan- 
guish for  lack  of  nourishment  and  moisture.  They 
break  down  readily,  and  quickly  give  to  succeeding 
crops,  and  in  an  acceptable  form,  the  materials  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

(342) 


Clay   Penetrated   by    Clover. 


Some  of  the  clovers  are  able 
to  secure  much  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  subsoil,  although 
the  total  weight  of  roots  found 
in  the  lower  strata  of  soil  is  small 
compared  with  the  amount  found 
in  the  upper  strata,  as  the  nour- 
ishment secured  from  the  subsoil 
goes  largely  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  roots  near  the  surface,  and  not 
to  enlarging  the  deep -feeding  roots. 
Fig.  45  is  a  drawing,  from  a 
photograph,  of  the  root  of  a  clover 
plant  fifteen  months  old  from  the 
seed  and  22  inches  long.  This 
plant  grew  in  the  heavy  clay  soil 
of  a  clover  field  with  others  of 
similar  size  and  character.  The 
side  roots  could  not  be  preserved, 
as  the  plant  had  to  be  dug  out 
with  a  pick,  and  the  tap-root  could 
not  be  preserved  in  its  entirety 
because  of  the  hardness  of  the  clay 
and  the  smallness  of  the  root. 
The  common  clovers  get  the  greater 
part  of  their  food  within  two  feet 
of  the  surface,  though  they  may 
feed  at  the  depth  of  five  or  six 
feet  in  rare  cases. 

All  the  clovers  tend  to  improve 
the  physical  conditions  of   the  soil. 


K 


Fig.  45.     Taproot  of 
a   clover  plant. 


344  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

Those  which  have  tap-roots  also  indirectly  aerate 
the  soil  and  improve  drainage.  They  bring  stores 
of  potential  nitrogen  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
layers  of  the  land,  and  also  make  positive  additions 
of  it  to  the  soil.  But  if  the  resultant  manure  from 
feeding  the  hay  secured  from  clover  fields  is  not 
returned  to  the  land,  and  no  means  are  taken  to 
supply  mineral  matter,  the  fertility,  or  productive 
capacity  of  the  soil,  will,  in  time,  be  greatly  re- 
duced. For  illustration,  consider  a  crop  of  2.6  tons 
of  red  clover  hay  per  acre,  raised  by  the  author  on  a 
fourteen -acre  field  last  year.  Assuming  the  average 
composition,  the  hay  contained,  in  round  numbers, 
293  pounds  of  mineral  matter,  of  which  101  pounds 
was  potash,  30  pounds  phosphoric  acid,  and  100 
pounds  lime.  The  hay  also  contained  from  112  to 
120  pounds  of  potential  nitrogen.  It  will  readily 
be  seen  that  it  would  not  take  many  crops  of 
clover  to  so  deplete  the  available  mineral  matter 
in  the  soil  as  to  seriously  reduce  production,  unless 
some  were  added.  Superior  tillage  could  prolong 
the  period  of  full  crops,  but  sooner  or  later  min- 
eral matter  must  be  added,  or  loss  would  result. 
The  wanton  waste  of  manures  has  to  a  large  extent 
counterbalanced  the  full  benefits  which  should  have 
been  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  clovers  in  many 
wheat  districts.  Additions  of  mineral  matter  to  the 
land  and  increased  clover  culture  are  competent  to 
speedily  insure  full  crops  and  cure  many  ills  which 
the  land  is  heir  to. 

The  following   table    gives    in    brief    the    results    of 


Young   vs.   Old    Clover.  345 

some    investigations  made  by   A.  M.  Bread,*  at  Cor- 
nell : 

TABLE    LXXX1V. 

Composition  of  second-growth  red  clover  cut  in  October,  two  years  from 
seeding,  slightly  mixed  ivith  timothy. 

Lbs.  per  acre. 

Air-dried  tops 5,417. 

Nitrogen 91.5 

Phosphoric  acid '. 40.35 

Potash  78. 

Air-dried  roots  from  8  inches  surface  soil 2,308. 

Nitrogen 47.30 

Phosphoric  acid 27. 

Potash  31.96 

Total  of  tops  and  roots 7.785. 

Nitrogen 138.80 

Phosphoric  acid  07.35 

Potash 109.96 

Investigations  made  with  clover  one  year  from 
Beeding,  showed  larger  quantities  of  the  three  ele- 
ments in  roots  and  tops  than  two-year  old  clover 
did. 

It  is  established  beyond  doubt  that  the  clovers, 
especially  the  annuals  and  the  biennials,  are  able  to 
take  large  amounts  of  mineral  matter  from  the  soil. 
and  they  receive  from  the  soil  and  air  large  amounts 
of  nitrogen,  which  they  store  up  in  roots  and  tops. 
The  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  varies  widely.  The 
medium  red  clover,  one  year  from  seeding,  gives  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  than  clover 
two  years  from  seeding.  Red  clover  which  produces 
two    tons    per   acre    may     be    expected    to    furnish    po- 

*  Thesis   for  ilet:rt-t>  of   Bachelor  of  Science   in   Agriculture,  IrtiO. 


346  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

tentially  to  the  soil,  after  the  first  cutting,  in  roots 
and  stubble,  40  to  60  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20  to  25 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  to  50  pounds  of 
potash.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat,  or  1,800  pounds, 
and  2,700  pounds  of  straw,  would  remove  approxi- 
mately 46  pounds  of  nitrogen,  20  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  26  pounds  of  potash.  The  chances 
are,  then,  that  a  clover  stubble,  if  plowed  early, 
might  furnish  of  available  plant -food  two -thirds  of 
the  nitrogen,  one -half  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  potash  needed  for  a  crop  of  30  bush- 
els of  wheat  per  acre  and  the  accompanying  straw, 
if  soil,  climate  and  moisture  performed  their  legiti- 
mate work.  Although  clover,  both  roots  and  tops, 
breaks  down  and  decomposes  rapidly,  it  could  hardly 
be  expected  that  all  of  the  fertilizing  constituents 
it  contains  would  become  available  and  be  used  by 
the   wheat,  or   even   by   succeeding   crops. 

The  amounts  of  plant -food  which  wheat,  under 
present  systems  of  tillage,  secures  from  clover  roots 
and  stubble  left  in  the  soil  have  usually  been  ex- 
aggerated. The  beneficial  effects  of  clovers  are  due 
quite  as  much  to  their  action  on  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  as  to  the  amount  of  available 
plant -food  which  they  bring  to  the  land.  The 
species  of  clover  which  may  give  best  results  in 
any  locality  can  be  determined  only  by  experimen- 
tation. In  a  warm  climate  the  crimson  clover  does 
especially  well;  in  the  north  the  perennial  species — 
medium,  large  red  and  alsike — are  to  be  preferred, 
though    in    some    localities   crimson   clover   does    well. 


Cover    Crops.  347 

Recent  results  show  that  the  large  and  medium  red 
clovers,  as  orchard  or  stubble  cover  crops,  are  to  be 
preferred  to  the  crimson  all  along  the  debatable  line 
where  the  latter  does  well  only  under  favorable 
conditions.  To  receive  the  greatest  good  from  clovers 
when  used  as  cover  crops,  they  should  be  sown 
early.  Alfalfa  may  be  made  to  produce  much  more 
forage  than  the  clovers,  but  it  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  plant  well  started,  and  it  is  not  at 
its  best  until  it  is  from  two  to  three  years  old, 
and  when  once  well  established,  it  is  left  undis- 
turbed for  several  years.  Hence,  it  tends  to  rob 
the  land  of  its  mineral  elements,  and  does  not 
bring  to  the  hind  as  much  potential  nitrogen  as 
the  clovers  do,  since  the  roots  and  stubble  are 
utilized  for  their  nitrogenous  compounds  only  at  long 
intervals.  In  a  warm  climate  the  cow  pea  and  the 
crimson  clover,  if  supplemented  with  potash  and 
phosphoric,  acid,  may  be  used  not  only  to  main- 
tain the  productivity  of  the  land,  but  even  to  in- 
crease it,  while  diminishing  the  cost  of  tillage  and 
improving  the  texture  of  the  soil,  thereby  increas- 
ing   its    capacity    for    holding    moisture. 

Some  garden  plats,  and  even  whole  fields,  are  left 
to  grow  weeds  in  late  summer  and  fall.  These 
places  would  be  better  seeded  to  clover,  peas  or 
some  other  leguminous  plants,  since  even  a  growth 
of  two  or  three  months  serves  to  add  humus  and 
nitrogen  to  the  soil.  The  following  table  sets  forth 
the  results  of  some  experiments  conducted  in  1S06 
at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station.     Clover  seeds  were 


348  The   Fertility    of  the   Land. 

sown  August  1,  and  the  plants  were  dug  Novem- 
ber 4,  1896,  three  months  and  four  days  after  the 
seeds  were  sown: 

TABLE    LXXXV. 

Nitrogen  in  an  acre  of  cloverx. 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs., 

in  top.  in  roots.  total. 

Crimson  clover 125.28  30.60  155.94 

Mammoth     "     67.57  78.39  145.96 

Medium  red  clover 6.'U1  40.25  103.36 

The  nitrogen  in  the  clover  may  not  be  as  quickly 
available  as  it  is  in  cotton -seed  meal;  but,  if  so, 
it  would  usually  be  considered  of  less  value  per 
unit  than  that  in  the  meal,  the  trade  value  of 
which  is  placed  at  12  cents  per  pound.  What  part 
of  the  nitrogen  of  these  clovers  was  secured  from 
the  air  and  what  part  from  the  soil  is  not  known, 
but  enough  is  revealed  to  indicate  that  leguminous 
cover  and  catch  crops  may  be  made  to  materially 
assist   productivity. 

A  sample  of  the  nodules  from  the  roots  of  the 
above  crimson  clover  was  taken  November  14,  189G. 
An  analysis  showed  the  following  percentages  of 
moisture  and  nitrogen: 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 79.37 

Nitrogen 1 . 1 

Not  only  leguminous  plants,  but  others,  as  rye, 
wheat  and  oats,  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  as 
cover  crops,  and  all  do  well  if  sowed  or  drilled  on 
unplowed    land    after    inter-tilled    crops.        The     red 


Glover   as   a   Host-plant.  349 

clovers  may  be  introduced  into  the  pastures  and 
mowed  lands  by  sowing  their  seeds  in  early  spring, 
after  which  the  land  should  be  harrowed  and  rolled. 
The  harrowing  and  rolling  will  improve  the  grasses  ; 
and  the  clovers  in  time  when  their  roots  have  de- 
cayed, will  tend  to  aerate  and  drain  the  soil  while 
furnishing  acceptable  nitrogen  for  the  grasses.  Since 
the  clovers  always  benefit  the  pasture  and  hay 
grasses  when  associated  with  them,  some  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  at  least  a  few  such  host  plants 
in  the  grass  fields  at  all  times. 

FALLOWS. 

The  practice  of  leaving  the  land  fallow  or  un- 
cropped  for  one  or  more  seasons  was  common  in 
ancient  times.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  if  the 
land  was  cultivated  for  all  or  part  of  the  period  of  rest 
it  was  more  fruitful  than  if  left  to  be  occupied  by 
weeds  and  volunteer  grasses.  The  first  implements  for 
tilling  the  land  were  so  imperfect  that  the  demands  of 
the  erops  soon  outran  the  available  plant -food,  and 
there  were  no  better  methods  known  for  bringing  the 
supply  up  to  the  demand  than  by  weathering  and  by 
the  growth  and  decay  of  vegetable  matter.  The  French 
early  discovered  that  "maneuvering"  the  land,  that  is, 
making  the  particles  of  earth  change  place  by  tillage. 
made  it  more  productive.  Fallowing  at  first  was  per- 
formed largely  by  spade  and  hoe  on  small  areas;  as 
civilization  advanced  and  population  increased,  a  larger, 
better  and  eonstaut   supply  of    food  was   needed,   and, 


350  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

as  little  manuring  was  practiced,  summer -fallowing 
became  common  in  all  civilized  countries.  The  effects 
of  fallowing  were  easily  seen  and  well  understood,  but 
the  causes  which  produced  the  effects  were  often  a 
mystery.  It  was  noted  that  some  crops  were  more 
benefited  by  fallowing  than  others.  In  England  the 
fallow  preceded  the  exacting  wheat  crop.  In  Italy, 
France  and  Germany,  continuous  tillage  in  the  vine- 
yards was  found  to  be  beneficial  and  took,  in  part,  the 
place  of  the  fallow.  The  practice  of  continuous  tillage 
each  season  has  become  common  in  American  vine- 
yards and  in  Californian  orchards,  and  might  be  more 
generally  practiced  with  good  results  in  the  orchards 
of  the  east.  Observing  the  wonderful  results  of  clean 
and  continuous  tillage  in  orchards  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  it  is  inexplicable  that  the  practice  has  not 
become  universal,  for  it  not  only  sets  free  plant -food 
aud  conserves  moisture,  but  adds  to  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  trees. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  second  half  of  the 
present  century,  great  improvements  were  made  in  the 
plow  and  other  farm  implements,  which  enabled  the 
farmer  to  till  the  land  so  much  better  than  formerly 
that  the  practice  of  bare  summer- fallowing  has  been 
largely  abandoned.  The  result  is  that  weeds,  espe- 
cially Canada  thistles,  are  on  the  increase  except 
where  the  most  thorough  intensified  tillage  has  been 
practiced. 

The  benefits  of  summer -fallowing  are  so  many  that 
the  practice  should  again  come  into  vogue  in  many 
cases.     The  first   plowing   may  be  performed  the  last 


Fallows,  How    Conducted.  351 

of  May  (it  should  be  deep  and  thorough),  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  the  surface  should  be  put  in  fine 
tilth.  This  will  induce  most  of  the  seeds  in  the  soil 
to  germinate  at  once,  and  then  the  young  plants  may 
be  easily  killed.  As  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  fallow- 
ing is  to  clean  the  land,  this  opportunity  should  not 
be  allowed  to  pass  without  accomplishing  the  object 
sought.  The  character  of  the  plowing,  the  weeds 
present,  the  sod  turned  under,  and  the  soil,  will  de- 
termine whether  it  will  be  best  to  replow  two  or  three 
times  or  to  give  deep  surface  tillage  ;  the  former  is 
usually  the  safest  and  best  when  practicable.  The 
last  deep  plowing  should  not  be  done  later  than  the 
middle  of  August,  if  the  land  is  to  be  planted  to 
wheat  or  rye,  that  the  soil  may  have  time  to  solidify, 
the  seed-bed,  meantime,  being  kept  mellow  by  shallow 
surface  tillage.  One  deep  plowing  and  a  surface  tillage 
may  be  made  to  accomplish  all  the  desired  objects  in 
some  cases.  Bare  summer-fallowing  should  clear  the 
land  of  both  perennial  and  annual  weeds,  change  for 
the  better  the  physical  condition  of  the  land,  break  up 
the  hard-pan,  facilitate  the  movement  of  moisture 
between  the  particles  of  earth,  give  time  and  oppor- 
tunity to  remove  any  obstructions  to  plow  or  harvester, 
and  above  all  it  should  set  free  fertility,  especially 
nitrogen.  When  any  considerable  amount  of  draining 
is  to  be  done  at  one  time,  the  opportunity  to  conduct 
a  summer-fallow  should  be  taken,  as  the  injurious 
effects  of  tramping  in  early  spring,  the  time  when  the 
draining  would  best  be  done,  will  be  overcome  by 
subsequent  tillage. 


352  The    Fertility  of  the    Land. 

Green  summer  fallows  are  those  upon  which  plants 
are  growing  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time  while 
the  land  is  under  treatment.  They  are  frequently  re- 
sorted to  when  the  soil  is  light  and  poor,  while  bare 
fallowing  is  usually  practiced  when  the  soil  contains  a 
fair  amount  of  plant -food,  is  weedy  and  of  a  clayey 
or  tenacious  nature.  By  plowing  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember (in  some  localities  even  later),  rye,  crimson 
clover  or  other  seeds  may  be  sown  and  the  plants 
plowed  under  when  coming  into  head  the  following 
spring.  Buckwheat,  or  better,  peas  in  the  north  and 
cow  peas  in  the  south,  may  be  sown  on  the  fresh  - 
turned  earth  early  in  the  season.  The  cost  of  the 
seed,  the  climate,  the  land,  and  especially  the  resultant 
fertility,  should  all  be  considered  in  selecting  a  green 
manure  crop  to  be  grown  preceding  the  fallow.  Buck- 
wheat furnishes  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
to  plow  under,  grows  readily  on  poor  land,  responds  to 
even  a  light  dressing  of  commercial  fertilizer,  leaves 
the  land  loose,  and  changes  dormant  into  active  plant- 
food,  but  is  not  a  nitrogen  gatherer.  While  peas  and 
clover  are  quite  as  active  in  liberating  food,  they  in- 
directly produce  liberal  quantities  of  fertility  in  the 
form  of  potential  nitrogen.  Wherever  clover  will 
succeed,  it  is  by  far  the  best  green  fallow  plant,  for  a 
crop  of  hay  may  be  taken  off  and  yet  leave  the  land 
more  fertile  than  at  first,  for  the  stubble  and  roots  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  some  mineral 
matter  is  brought  by  the  roots  from  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface,  as  already  explained.  While  a  green  fallow 
does  not  give  so  good  an  opportunity  as  a  bare  one 


Short    Fallows.  353 

for  setting  free  plant- food  by  tillage,  or  for  destroy- 
ing weeds,  yet  in  one  respect  it  is  superior,  for  it 
actually  adds  vegetable  mold  and  fertility  to  the  land 
while  setting  free  some  of  its  dormant  energies. 

When  neither  of  the  above  fallows  is  desirable, 
much  may  be  done  by  a  short  fallow.  If  the  land 
which  has  produced  barley,  oats  or  clover,  be  plowed 
immediately  after  the  crop  has  been  removed,  some 
six  or  eight  weeks  intervene  before  seeding  with  fall 
grain  or  grass.  This  gives  time  for  thorough  sur- 
face tillage,  and  if  the  land  is  harrowed  or  culti- 
vated every  two  weeks  or  oftener  the  results  will  be 
beneficial  in  many  ways.  This  is  the  time  of  the 
year  when  nitrification  goes  on  rapidly  if  the  requi- 
site moisture  is  present;  and  thorough  tillage  usually 
brings  moisture  to  the  surface  by  capillarity.  Oats 
are  not  so  good  to  precede  wheat  as  barley  is.  as 
they  ripen  later,  thereby  shortening  the  period  in 
which  fertility  may  be  set  free  by  tillage  and  weath- 
ering. But  this  and  other  like  crops  may  be 
shocked  in  rows,  leaving  wide  intervals,  which  max 
be  plowed  and  fitted  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut. 
The  time  that  elapses  between  the  removal  of  one 
crop  and  the  planting  of  another  gives  opportunity 
for  liberating  fertility  by  tillage  and  weathering,  and. 
as  little  rain  falls  during  this  period,  no  loss  of 
nitrogen  by  leaching  will  likely  occur.  Clover  stub 
bles  are  sometimes  left  without  plowing  for  two  or 
three  weeks  after  the  hay  has  been  removed,  or 
until  the  new  growth  is  several  inches  high.  This 
is   not   always   desirable,   because   dry  weather    later   in 

x 


354  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

the  season  is  likely  to  make  the  plowing  more  diffi- 
cult, and  less  time  is  given  for  weathering,  tilling 
and  compacting  the  soil.  Since  the  roots  and  stubble 
of  the  clover  contain  much  potential  nitrogen,  fre- 
quently more  than  a  crop  of  twenty -five  bushels  of 
wheat  to  the  acre  contains,  it  is  best  to  plow  early, 
or  before  the  clover  has  made  much  growth. 

The  many  opportunities  which  are  present  to  most 
farmers  for  changing  potential  plant -food  into  that 
which  is  available,  and  for  adding  humus  and 
nitrogenous  compounds  to  the  soil,  are  not  fully 
utilized.  Few  persons  fully  realize  what  great  bene- 
fits can  be  secured  by  a  short  fallow,  or  by  plow- 
ing immediately  after  a  crop  has  been  removed,  and 
starting  another  one,  which  may  be  plowed  under  or 
used  as  a  forage  crop  later  in  the  season.  If  na- 
ture's modes  of  action  are  observed  closely,  it  will 
be  seen  that  she  attempts  in  every  possible  way,  by 
means  of  hardy  plants,  and  those  which  are  able  to 
maintain  themselves  on  semi -sterile  soils,  to  clothe 
the  land  with  vegetation.  Should  we  not  learn  a 
lesson  from  these  natural  soil -builders  ?  Each  plant 
and  weed  seems  to  find  its  appropriate  soil  and 
conditions,  and  crowds  out  those  which  are  least 
adapted  to  accomplish  the  purposes  desired.  Many 
of  these  are  simply  digesters  of  tough  plant -food  in 
the  surface  soil  or  the  subsoil;  some  of  them,  in 
addition,  add  greater  or  less  stores  *  of  potential  nitro- 
gen to  the  surface  soil. 

He  is  a  wise  farmer  who  sees  and  appreciates 
that    the    silent    forces,  by  timely  direction    and   con- 


Intelligence,  Courage   and   Dominion.  355 

trol,  may  be  made  to  minister  to  his  wants,  and  to 
change  toil  to  healthful,  inspiring,  intelligent  work. 
He  is  wiser  who  sees  that  the  Great  Designer  in- 
tended man  to  have  dominion  over  all  things,  and 
does  not  complain  when  he  meets  with  partial  fail- 
ure, but  sets  himself  at  work  to  learn  how  he  may 
command  intelligently,  that  prompt  and  certain  obedi- 
ence may  be  secured. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ROTATIONS. 

Since  plants  feed  under  ground,  and,  hence,  out 
of  sight,  and  since  their  food  is  largely  invisible  to 
the  unaided  eye,  their  likes  and  dislikes  are  not 
easily  observed.  An  understanding  of  what  kinds  of 
food,  and  what  proportion  of  them,  plants  thrive 
upon,  is  best  secured,  not  by  direct  inspection,  but 
by  observing  the  effect  of  certain  elements  on  growth, 
the  proportion  of  one  element  to  the  other,  their 
availability,  and  the  quantity  present  in  the  soil. 
Other  factors  are  always  present  demanding  careful 
consideration, — the  power  of  the  plant  to  reach  its 
food,  the  power  of  setting  it  free  when  it  is  reached, 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  suitable  supply  of 
moisture.  Many  and  varied  forces  are  always  present, 
most  of  them  acting  silently  and  secretly.  These 
forces  and  their  action  may  be  discovered  by  inter- 
rogating the  plants,  and  by  scientific  experimenta- 
tion. A  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  plants  and  of 
the  causes  that  have  produced  the  visible  outward 
results  is  necessary  to  a  good  understanding  of  the 
laws  which  govern  their  growth. 

Forty  bushels  of  oats  may  be  grown  on  land 
that    will    not    produce     fifteen     bushels    of     wheat, 

(356) 


Power   of   Plants    i<>    Secure    Food.  -S57 

although  the  amount  of  plant -food  required  for 
the  oats  is  greater  than  that  required  for  the 
wheat;  and  this,  too,  where  the  soil  and  climate  are 
adapted  to  grow  both  grains  equally  well.  This 
happens,  too,  even  if  winter  wheat  has  nearly  twice 
as  long  a  time  as  the  oats  has  in  which  to  secure 
its  food.  The  proof  is  conclusive  that,  in  this  case, 
the  oat  plant  has  greater  power  than  the  wheat 
plant,  either  to  reach  its  proper  food  or  to  set  it 
free,  or   both. 

Some  plants  require  extra  care  when  young,  and 
do  best  when  there  is  an  abundance  of  food  immedi- 
ately at  hand  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth, — 
as  broom-corn,  sorghum,  and  other  slow-starting 
plants.  Once  well  established,  they  are  able  to  with- 
stand hardships,  such  as  drought  and  scarcity  of 
food,  much  better  than  maize,  which  may  begin  its 
growth  successfully  under  somewhat  adverse  condi- 
tions. Again,  there  are  other  plants  which  not  only 
have  the  power  to  set  free  the  mineral  constituents  of 
the  soil  in  a  marked  degree,  but  they  can  also  pene- 
trate the  subsoil  for  it,  and  can,  moreover,  through 
organisms  attached  to  their  roots,  utilize  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air.  Among  these  are  the  clovers  and 
other  kinds  of  plants  belonging  to  the  leguminosse,  or 
pulse  family.  A  notable  instance  of  this  may  be 
seen  on  the  dry,  sandy  plains  of  California,  where 
the  tree -lupine  grows  four  or  five  feet  in  height  in 
a  most  luxuriant  way,  while  other  plants  utterly 
fail  to  maintain  themselves.  With  its  long  tap- 
root, extending   eight  or   ten    feet    below  the   surface, 


358  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

reaching  moisture  and  mineral  food,  and  its  inde- 
pendence of  the  soil  for  its  supply  of  nitrogen,  it 
can  flourish  where  non- nitrogen  gatherers  cannot 
live.  This  plant  should  be  named  the  "pioneer," 
for  though  not  lovely  or  great  in  itself,  it  prepares 
the  way  for  a  variety  of  more  useful  vegetation. 
Plants  vary  as  to  the  amount  of  food  they  require. 
The  cacti  of  the  desert  and  the  pines  of  the  aban- 
doned fields  of  the  south  grow  and  flourish  where 
better  plants  grow  feebly  or  not  at  all. 

The  following  figures  give  the  amount  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  a  ton,  air-dried,  of  a  few 
common   woods : 

Phos.  acid,  Potash, 
ll.s.  lbs. 

Old  field  pine 14  .16 

Ash  wood 24  2.98 

White  oak 50  2.12 

Hickory 1.16  2.76 

Some  plants  get  a  large  portion  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  atmosphere.  These  being  highly  car- 
bonaceous in  their  composition,  require  relatively  little 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  Plants  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  those,  as  garden  vegetables,  which 
require  the  little  earthy  food  they  need  easily  avail- 
able in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  growth,  and  those, 
as  cereals,  which  fruit  best  if  much  of  their  earthy 
food  is  accessible  just  before  or  at  blooming  and 
seeding  time. 

Some  plants  start  out  in  life  with  a  greater 
reserve  of  nourishment  to  draw  upon  than  others, 
and  hence  do  not  have  to  depend  upon  the  soil  until 


Feeding   Plants   and   Animals.  359 

they  are  well  started  in  life.  Cabbages,  onions,  and 
most  grasses  having  small  seeds  begin  their  lives  with 
a  meager  supply,  and  therefore  an  ample  amount  of 
available  food  near  the  seeds  should  be  present 
when  they  germinate.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
tuberous  plants,  as  the  potato,  are  able  to  grow 
for  a  considerable  time  and  even  fruit  without 
any  earthy  nourishment  except  that  contained  within 
themselves. 

Plants,  like  animals,  vary  greatly  as  to  their 
ability  to  digest  and  assimilate  the  nourishment  pre- 
sented. Some,  as  buckwheat,  rye,  mullein,  and  even 
clover,  and  the  old -field  pine  of  the  south,  are  able 
not  merely  to  subsist,  but  to  flourish,  on  soils  in 
which  the  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter  are  "tough," 
or  not  readily  available.  Among  this  class  of  plants 
are  many  of  the  weeds.  Some  are  invigorated  by 
a  goodly  supply  of  tender  food,  others,  as  the  ox- 
eye  daisy,  are  injured  by  it ;  and  in  fact  there  are 
several  troublesome  plants  which  succumb  to  liberal 
and  persistent  manuring. 

With  the  feeding  of  animals  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  adjust  the  food  to  their  respective  wants, 
the  milch  cow  thriving  on  soft,  succulent  foods, 
while  horses  kept  for  speed  do  best  on  hard,  dry 
ones.  Yet  even  in  the  feeding  of  animals,  the 
equivalent  of  rotation  is  secured  by  making  one 
animal  subsist  on  what  is  refused  by  another.  The 
colts  relish  the  coarse  stalks  of  clover  hay  which  are 
rejected  by  the  sheep,  and  swine  grow  on  what  is  not 
digested   by   the   fattening   steers.      The    large   mutton 


360  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

breeds  of  sheep  graze  on  the  lowlands  where  the  for- 
age is  coarse  and  succulent,  and  will  lose  flesh  rapidly 
if  forced  to  subsist  on  the  short,  dry  grasses  of  the 
steep  hillsides,  while  the  merinos  avoid  the  lowlands, 
prefering  the  arid,  sparsely  covered  slopes.  Similarly, 
a  good  bean  crop  can  be  raised  on  wheat  stubble, 
though  the  land  would  fail  to  produce  a  second  pay- 
ing crop  of  wheat  until  it  had  been  fertilized.  While 
it  is  true  that  wheat  may  be  and  has  been  made  to 
follow  wheat,  and  maize  to  follow  maize,  for  many 
years  in  succession  with  profit,  yet  in  both  cases, 
especially  the  former,  unusually  good  preparation  of 
the  soil  must  be  secured,  or  a  very  large  amount  of 
available  plant -food,  or  that  which  can  be  made 
quickly  available,  must  be  carried  by  the  soil,  or.  a 
liberal  amount  of  nourishment  must  be  added  each 
year.  Either  practice  may  be  unnecessarily  expensive 
and  wasteful  if  climatic  and  other  conditions  will 
allow  rotation  to  be  practiced. 

This  short  discussion,  and  the  few  illustrations  of 
the  habits,  likings  and  powers  of  plants,  are  given 
in  order  to  emphasize  the  need  of  noting  most  care- 
fully the  law  or  laws  which  govern  the  growth  and 
fruiting  of  each  species  and  variety  of  plants  raised, 
that  the  highest  success  may  be  secured.  While 
the  wants  of  all  plants  are  similar,  jet  no  two 
species  or  even  varieties  have  identically  the  same 
wants,  or  possess  the  same  powers  of  supplying  them 
from  the  soil.  Hence,  the  exacting  crops  should  be 
grown  when  the  land  is  most  fertile,  and  the  least 
exacting   crops  when    the    land    is   least    fertile. 


Economy  of  Rotation.  361 

SPECIFIC     DIRECTIONS     UPON     ROTATIONS. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  but  little  attention  has 
been  given  in  America  to  the  subject  of  rotation  and 
to  the  economizing  of  fertility,  because  the  virgin  soil 
usually  contains  a  wealth  of  fertility,  and  the  husband- 
man is  free  to  raise  what  finds  the  most  ready  sale 
or  is  the  most  easily  transportable,  or  those  species  of 
plants  whose  needs  and  habits  he  knows  best.  This 
has  frequently  resulted  in  allowing  many  noxious 
weeds  to  get  a  firm  foothold,  in  depleting  the  soil  of 
certain  elements  while  leaving  a  superabundance  of 
others,  in  robbing  the  surface  soil  of  the  requisite 
amount  of  vegetable  mold,  in  compacting  the  land  to 
an  undue  extent,  and  in  leaving  the  subsoil  largely 
unused.  In  exceptional  cases,  as  in  the  northwest, 
and  in  a  few  valleys,  and  on  land  frequently  fertilized 
by  overflow,  it  may  not  be  merely  expedient  but  even 
wise  to  ignore  the  laws  of  rotation  for  a  time,  and 
practice  continuous  cropping  with  one  variety  of 
plants,  but  sooner  or  later  rotation  must  be  resorted 
to  if  production  is  to  continue  to  be  profitable,  un- 
less the    land  is  kept  liberally  fertilized. 

Intelligent  rotation  can  be  made  to  accomplish 
many  things  that  are  not  secured  by  the  haphazard 
methods  now  almost  universally  employed  in  this 
country.  If  systematically  carried  on,  it  can  be 
made  to  destroy  a  large  number  of  troublesome 
plants,  or  to  so  reduce  their  vitality  as  to  make 
them  harmless.  Consider,  for  instance,  land  infested 
with     plantain     or    wild    carrot.       These    plants    fruit 


362  The  Fertility   of  the   Land. 

after  the  medium  variety  of  red  clover  is  cut  for 
hay.  If  land  upon  which  winter  wheat  or  rye  is 
growing  be  seeded  to  clover  with  or  without  timothy, 
these  weeds  will  not  damage  the  grain  crop  nor  seri- 
ously interfere  with  the  early  growth  of  the  clover 
the  following  year,  because  they  do  not  seed  until 
midsummer.  As  soon  as  the  clover  is  cut  and  re- 
moved they  quickly  throw  up  their  seed -stalks,  blos- 
som and  fruit,  if  not  destroyed.  True,  a  few  weeks 
after  haying  the  field  may  be  mowed  a  second  time 
to  prevent  the  weeds  from  seeding,  but  enough  always 
escape  to  reseed  the  land,  and  no  permanent,  bene- 
ficial results  are  secured.  If,  however,  the  clover 
stubble  be  thoroughly  plowed  immediately  after  the 
first  cutting,  the  reseeding  to  weeds  will  be  prevented. 
Then,  too,  this  is  the  most  suitable  time  for  plowing 
the  ground  preparatory  to  sowing  wheat  or  rye. 

If  a  short,  two-year  rotation  of  wheat  or  rye 
and  clover  be  pursued  for  a  few  years,  the  land 
will  be  nearly  cleared  of  all  of  this  class  of  weeds, 
provided  that  no  seeds  of  the  undesirable  plants  be 
sowed  with  the  grain  or  grass  seed,  and  none  are 
carried  to  the  field  in  manures;  and  the  same  prac- 
tice will  dispose  of  wire -worms  and  white  grubs. 
Finally,  a  little  hand -weeding  will  be  required  to 
make  the  work  complete  when  wild  carrots  and  sim- 
ilar plants  are  present.  When  the  farm  is  over- 
run with  weeds,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  manure 
free  from  their  seeds;  therefore,  only  commercial  fer- 
tilizers should  be  used  on  the  fields  under  treatment. 

This  short  rotation  of   wheat  and  clover  not  only 


Short   Rotations   Desirable.  363 

tends  to  clean  the  land,  but  also  improves  its  phys- 
ical condition,  and  conserves  and  adds  nitrogen  and 
humus  to  the  soil.  To  preserve  the  productive  power 
of  the  land,  mineral  fertilizers  must  be  applied,  or 
the  cereals  used  in  the  rotation  will  fail  to  give  the 
highest  results,  and  weeds  not  before  objectionable 
will  assert  themselves.  This  short  rotation,  or  one 
similar  to  it,  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  for 
destroying  certain  kinds  of  inferior  plants,  that  rob 
and  crowd  out  desirable  ones,  and  cause  the  fertility 
of  the  land  to  be  diverted  into  undesirable  chan- 
nels. When  climate  or  other  conditions  make  it  un- 
desirable to  raise  the  winter  cereals,  the  rotation 
may  be  modified  by  sowing  to  turnips  or  millet  (pref- 
erably the  former,  in  rows  with  inter-tillage),  on 
the  inverted  and  prepared  clover  stubble.  If  the  land 
is  fall -plowed  after  these  crops  are  removed,  the 
ground  will  then  be  ready  to  receive  the  spring 
cereal  and  the  clover  seed  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
workable. 

Rotation  may  be  made  to  increase  production, 
while  the  land  may  receive  at  the  most  appropriate 
time  its  usual  amount  of  manures.  In  some  cases 
the  wheat  plant  is  injui  >d  by  the  liberal  application 
of  them.  If  the  rotation  is  so  managed  as  to  apply 
the  manures  to  some  other  crop  in  the  rotation,  as 
maize,  the  results  in  such  cases  may  be  far  more  sat- 
isfactory than  when  they  are  applied  directly  to  the 
wheat  land.  A  liberal  application  of  farm  manures 
every  three  or  four  years  to  land  upon  which  clover 
is  grown,    supplies,    under   these   conditions,  relatively 


364  The    Fertility    of   the    Txrnd. 

too  much  nitrogen  for  the  mineral  elements  they  con- 
tain. If  wheat  is  grown,  the  plants  will  be  porous  in 
structure,  the  straw  and  leaves  too  abundant,  and 
lodging  may  ensue.  If  the  same  quantity  and  kind 
of  manure  be  applied  to  maize,  beneficial  instead 
of  detrimental  results  will  be  secured,  and  the  un- 
used residue  from  the  manures  will  not  be  sufficient 
to   injure  the   other  cereal   crops   that  may  follow. 

A  four-year  rotation  may  also  be  made  to  clean 
the  land  of  some  classes  of  noxious  weeds,  as,  for 
example,  the  Canada  thistle,  and  also  to  economize 
fertility.  If  the  rotation  is  started  by  plowing  a 
timothy  or  clover  sod  for  maize,  potatoes,  or  some 
other  inter- tilled  crop,  these  pests  can  be  kept  from 
breathing  one  entire  season;  that  is,  prevented  from 
forming  leaves,  and  they  will  either  die  or  be  so 
stunted  that  they  will  not  appear  in  force  for  several 
years.  Then,  too,  the  tillage  to  kill  the  weeds  sets 
free  fertility.  The  difficulty  in  killing  this  class  of 
plants  is  the  aversion  to  using  the  hoe  or  spade  on 
stray  weeds,  and  since  the  cultivator  always  leaves  a 
few  to  flourish,  the  land  is  seldom  really  cleaned  by 
the  hoed  or  inter- tilled  crops.  Nevertheless,  frequent 
tillage  is  of  great  benefit,  because  it  improves  soil 
texture   and   conserves   moisture. 

If  the  inter-tilled  crop  is  followed  by  spring- 
sown  cereals,  opportunity  is  given  for  plowing  the 
ground  in  the  fall  and  again  in  early  spring.  These 
frequent  plowings  and  the  necessary  surface  tillage 
may  be  made  a  partial  substitute  for  a  bare  sum- 
mer  fallow   in   killing   weeds    and    liberating  fertility, 


Rotation    Without    Plowing.  365 

and  that,  too,  without  losing  the  use  of  the  land 
for  one  season.  If  the  work  is  not  timely  nor  well 
done,  then  the  land  would  better  have  been  treated 
to  a  bare  summer  fallow,  especially  when  it  is  in 
a  bad  physical  condition,  because  frequent  plo wings 
in  midsummer  are  usually  more  beneficial  than  late 
fall    and   early   spring   plowings   are. 

Certain  classes  of  weeds  infest  certain  kinds  of 
crops  much  more  than  others;  when  this  is  the  case, 
rotation  may  be  made  to  do  much  to  destroy  them, 
by  leaviug  the  particular  crop  out  of  the  rotation 
in  which  the  weed  or  weeds  appear.  This  is  not 
difficult,  since  the  ordinary  crops  of  the  farm  are 
nearly  equal  in  profit,  if  labor,  use  of  land,  seed. 
and  the  amount  of  fertility  carried  to  town  where 
the  products  are  sold,  are  all  considered.  The  farmer 
should  study  the  undesirable  plants  quite  as  much 
as  the  desirable  ones,  that  he  may  change  or  modify 
his  practices  so  as  to  attack  his  enemies  at  their 
weakest    points. 

Rotation  on  meadows  and  pastures  without  plow- 
ing can  be  made  to  prevent  many  undesirable  plants 
from  asserting  themselves.  If  the  land  be  seeded 
with  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  clover,  or  with 
grasses  or  timothy  alone,  some  of  the  seeds  are  cer- 
tain to  find  an  uncongenial  soil,  and  the  plants  either 
die  or  become  feeble,  and  even  if  they  flourish  at 
first,  many  of  them  exhaust  the  available  food  within 
their  reach  in  a  few  years.  If,  then,  young  and 
vigorous  plants  can  be  introduced,  or  those  having 
different    powers    and    habits   of    root   growth,   or  thos<> 


366  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

which  furnish  food  for  the  others,  a  rotation  of 
plants  may  be  made  beneficial.  Clover  is  naturally 
the  host -plant  of  the  grasses,  and  secures  its  food 
from  much  lower  depths  than  most  of  the  grasses 
do.  If  seeds  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  can  be 
made  to  grow  in  the  declining  sod  without  plowing, 
not  only  will  the  full  amount  of  forage  be  fur- 
nished, but  undesirable  plants  will  be  prevented  from 
occupying  the  vacant  spaces.  By  sowing  a  small 
amount  of  seed  early  in  the  spring,'  before  the 
freezing  has  ceased  in  the  north,  and  winter  rains 
in  the  south,  many  young  and  vigorous  plants  of 
different  species  from  those  present,  or  of  the  same, 
may  be  introduced.  In  order  to  make  the  germina- 
tion and  growth  more  certain,  immediately  after  the 
seeds  are  sown  the  land  may  be  harrowed  once  or 
more,  and  rolled. 

Rotation  may  be  made  to  economize  plant -food. 
Since  plants  vary  in  their  power  to  reach  and  appro- 
priate nourishment,  the  rotation  may  be  so  arranged 
as  to  grow  those  kinds  which  have  the  least  power, 
or  those  which  make  but  little  demand  on  the  soil 
when  the  land  is  least  fertile.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil  in  a  wise  rotation  is  used,  and  not  carried  along 
as  useless  capital.  Successful  agriculture  consists 
quite  as  much  in  taking  fertility  out  of  the  soil  judi- 
ciously as  in  putting  it  into  the  soil.  Therefore,  in 
planning  a  rotation  where  circumstances  allow  freedom 
of  choice,  the  object  should  be  to  change  inorganic 
elements  into  organic  substancss;  that  is,  to  get  the 
largest  possible   crops   consistent  with   the  largest   net 


Energizing   Dull    Clods.  367 

results,  not  alone  on  account  of  the  immediate  results, 
but  also  in  order  to  have  more  manures  to  return  to 
the  fields.  Or,  to  express  it  in  another  way,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  plant -food  that  can  be  made 
to  rotate  through  the  plants  and  animals  back  to  the 
land,  the  better.  Transforming  the  elements  of  the 
soil  into  plant-life  does  not  destroy  them, —  it  only 
changes  their  combinations,  and  the  oftcuer  they  are 
rotated  the  better  they  are  likely  to  become,  for  as 
soon  as  left  idle  they  tend  to  become  sluggish. 

If  the  inert  matters  of  the  vegetable  mold  and  the 
rocks  be  made  to  change  their  combinations  by  tillage 
so  as  to  become  available  for  the  plant,  they  are  not 
only  on  their  way  to  become  useful,  but  also  the 
quality  of  the  elements  tends  to  be  improved,  for 
plants  break  down  easily,  and  when  broken  down 
furnish  quickly  available  nourishment  to  other  plants; 
or,  if  they  be  fed  to  animals,  the  resultant  excrement 
will  yield  up  its  nourishment  for  other  plants  still 
more  readily.  Nature  provides  plants  to  feed  animals, 
animals  to  produce  fertility,  fertility  to  feed  other 
plants  ;  this  rotation  preserves  the  elements  of  pro- 
ductive power,  while  they  are  constantly  changing 
their  form  and  character. 

To  illustrate  how  a  less  exacting  crop  may  be 
made  to  follow  advantageously  a  more  exacting  one, 
the  four-year  rotation  now  frequently  adopted  since 
the  clover  root -borer  has  made  its  appearance  may  be 
cited.  One  year  of  clover  is  followed  by  maize  with 
or  without  manure,  this  by  the  less  exacting  oats, 
then  wheat,  phosphated  and  manured,  and  lastly,  the 


368  The   Fertility   of  the    Land. 

partly  self-sustaining  clovers,  or  clover  and  grasses. 
This  rotation  not  only  tends  to  clean  the  land,  but 
also  maintains  fertility,  and  makes  it  possible  to  reach 
satisfactory  results  with  but  one,  or  at  most,  two 
manurings  in  four  years,  the  less  exacting  crops  being 
able  to  flourish  on  the  residue  of  plant -food  left  from 
the  liberally  fertilized  wheat  and  decayed  clover  roots. 
Some  clover  should  always  accompany  the  hay  and 
pasture  grasses,  if  a  well-balanced  plant  ration  is  to 
be  maintained  in  the  soil. 

Rotation  not  only  gives  opportunity  to  make  eco- 
nomical use  of  the  land,  but  it  may  also  be  made  to 
head  off  many  kinds  of  insect  enemies  and  plant 
diseases.  If  plants  of  a  single  variety  or  species  are 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  land,  its  insect 
enemies  are  likely  to  multiply  rapidly,  since  they  are 
furnished  with  a  full  and  continuous  supply  of  the 
particular  kind  of  food  upon  which  they  thrive  best, 
while  if  a  wise  rotation  is  practiced  they  may  be 
starved  out  in  many  cases.  Fields  kept  long  in  grass 
are  likely  to  become  infested  with  wire -worms  and 
the  white  grub  (larva  of  the  May  beetle).  If  a  short 
rotation  is  practiced,  few  of  them  are  likely  to  be 
present.  In  any  case,  when  land  and  conditions  will 
permit,  a  short  rotation  is  preferable  to  a  long  one. 
In  like  manner  many  of  the  smuts,  rusts  and  blights 
may  be  entirely  prevented  or  largely  controlled  by 
superior  tillage  and  by  adopting  such  a  rotation  as 
will  give  them  but  little  opportunity  to  find  a  host 
upon  which  to  live.  Some  of  the  pests  of  the 
farm    can    migrate    to    a    considerable    distance    in   a 


Intermittent    Employment    Demoralizing.         3f>9 

single  season  when  in  their  mature  state.  In  that 
case,  it  may  be  of  little  use  to  prevent  the  multi- 
plication of  them  on  one's  own  farm,  if  the  unwise 
practices  of  a  neighbor  have  made  his  land  a 
breeding -place  for  pests,  such  as  wire -worms  and 
white  grubs.  If  by  consultation  and  cooperation 
of  neighbors  a  common  line  of  action  could  be 
secured,  some  of  the  difficulties  of  farming  might  be 
ameliorated. 

Rotation  may  be  made  to  distribute  the  work  of 
the  year,  thereby  providing  continuous  employment, 
and  making  it  possible  to  secure  cheaper  and  better 
help  than  when  only  a  few  kinds  of  plants  are  pro- 
duced. The  baleful  results  of  raising  a  single  or 
few  products  in  extended  districts  may  be  seen  in 
California  and  the  great  wheat  districts  of  the 
northwest.  In  such  localities  there  is  little  or  no 
true  home  life,  with  its  duties  and  restraints;  men 
and  boys  are  herded  together  like  cattle,  sleep  where 
they  may,  and  subsist  as  best  they  can.  The  work 
is  hard,  and  from  sun  to  sun  for  two  or  three 
months,  when  it  abruptly  ceases,  and  the  workmen 
are  left  to  find  employment  as  best  they  may,  or 
adopt  the  life  and  habits  of  the  professional  tramp. 
It  is  difficult  to  name  anything  more  demoralizing 
to  men.  and  ('specially  to  boys,  than  this  intermittent 
labor  ;  and  the  higher  the  wages  paid  and  the 
shorter  the  period  of  service,  the  more  demoralizing 
the  effect.  If  there  were  no  other  reason  for  prac- 
ticing rotation  with  a  variety  of  plants,  the  welfare 
of     the     workman     and     his     familv    should     form     a 


370  The   Fertility   of  the   Land. 

sufficient  one.  Happily  many  large  and  demoralizing 
wheat  ranches  are  being  divided  into  small  farms, 
upon  which  are  being  reared  the  roof -tree,  children, 
and   flowers. 

Both  two  and  four -year  rotations  have  been  men- 
tioned. There  is  still  another,  which  should  come 
into  common  use  on  fairly  fertile,  lightish  lands,  if 
circumstances  will  permit.  It  consists  of  one  year  of 
clover,  one  of  potatoes,  and  one  of  wheat.  The  three 
crops  may  be  secured  with  but  one  plowing.  The 
clover  stubble  may  be  plowed  either  fall  or  spring, 
after  two  cuttings  of  hay,  or  one  of  hay  and  one  of 
clover  seed ;  or,  in  lieu  of  the  seed,  fall  pasture. 
The  following  spring,  if  potatoes  are  planted  early, 
they  may  be  harvested  in  time  to  prepare  a  seed- 
bed with  the  cultivator  and  harrow  for  wheat.  As 
potatoes  are  deep -feeding  plants,  they  draw  but 
little  nourishment  from  the  upper  portion  of  the 
soil,  while  the  tillage  necessary  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  to  conserve  moisture  sets  free  an  abundance 
of  plant-food  near  the  surface,  and  compacts  the 
sub -surface  soil,  thus  securing  ideal  conditions  for 
winter  wheat.  A  light  dressing  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  might  be  applied  to  supplement  the 
farm  manures.  If  the  land  is  sandy,  a  small  addition 
of  nitrogen  may  be  advantageously  made  both  fall 
and  spring.  The  rotation  may  be  changed  from  a 
three  to  a  four -year  one  by  seeding  with  a  mixture 
of  grasses  and  clover,  which  will  continue  to  furnish 
hay  for  two  consecutive  years.  Although  the  three- 
year  rotation  is  but  little  practiced,  it  may  be  conn- 


Long   Rotations.  371 

dently  recommended  where  potatoes,  wheat  and  clover 
all  do  well.  This  rotation  may  be  made  to  keep  the 
land  fairly  fertile  and  free  from  noxious  weeds.  Clover. 
hay,  straw  and  small  potatoes  form  together  a  cheap 
and  almost  ideal  ration  for  wintering  sheep,  horses 
and  cattle,  and  such  a  ration  needs  but  little  addi- 
tion of  appropriate  concentrated  foods  to  make  it 
ideal  for  milch  cows.  In  this  three-year  rotation,  the 
surface  and  subsoil  both  furnish  their  due  proportion 
of  nourishment,  the  crops  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able produced,  the  work  is  well  distributed  through 
the  year,  and  the  principal  income  is  distributed  be- 
tween the  wheat,  the  butter  and  meats,  and  the 
potatoes,  so  that  an  entire  failure  is  not  likely  to 
occur.  Moreover,  but  few  pests  are  likely  to  w\  a 
foothold,  the  plant-food  taken  up  by  the  crops  is 
largely  left  on  the  farm  to  be  used  again  (sec  "Clover," 
in  Chapter  XIV.),  and  the  crops  are  raised  with  the 
minimum  of  plowing.  While  this  rotation  is  adapted 
only  to  certain  conditions,  longer  and  shorter  ones 
under  similar  circumstances  may  be  made  to  unlock 
fertility  and  to  yield  satisfactory  results  if  intelligently 
planned  and  persistently  pursued. 

Where  the  land  is  hilly,  or  difficult  and  expensive 
to  cultivate,  a  long  rotation  is  desirable,  that  t In- 
great  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  cultivate  such 
lands  successfully  may  be  avoided.  This  is  especially 
true  of  soil  that  is  composed  largely  of  tenacious  day. 
Then,  too,  such  land  being  usually  abundantly  supplied 
with  plant-food,  and  the  natural  home  of  most  grasses. 
the     rotation     may    well     be     one     in     which    mixed 


372  The    Fertility   of  the    Land. 

grasses  and  clovers  are  prominent.  Long  rotations 
are  adapted  to  large  estates,  while  short  ones  may 
be  adopted  on  small,  well-drained,  high-priced  farms. 

A  few  rotations  have  now  been  given  to  illus- 
trate the  chief  benefits  that  may  be  expected  from 
an  intelligent  choice  of  plants,  when  one  has  in  view 
both  the  welfare  of  the  soil  and  economy  of  effort. 
It  is  fully  realized  that  a  multitude  of  combinations 
may  be  made  that  are  better  suited  to  local  and  indi- 
vidual wants  than  those  cited.  It  is  also  realized 
that  success  may  be  secured  in  exceptional  cases  by 
the  constant  cultivation  of  a  single  species  or  variety 
of  plants.  The  writer  has  raised  maize  for  seven 
consecutive  years  successfully  in  a  little,  sheltered, 
gravelly  valley,  partly  as  an  experiment  and  partly 
because  it  could  be  kept  productive  by  the  ap- 
plioation  of  cheap  manures,  easily  accessible,  and 
because  this  field  could  be  planted  and  harvested 
earlier  than  the  other  fields,  thereby  distributing  the 
work  of  raising  maize  and  filling  the  silo  advan- 
tageously. This  case  is  cited,  not  only  to  show  that 
a  wise  law  may  be  broken  under  exceptional  cases, 
but  also  to  emphasize  the  need  of  an  understanding 
of  the  beneficial  laws  of  rotation  when  applied  under 
prevailing  conditions,  in  order  that  the  losses  and 
gains  by  any  particular  practice  may  be  fully  under- 
stood and  set  over  one  against  the  other.  Rotations, 
if  planned  to  suit  locality,  and  carried  on  with 
a  fair  understanding  of  natural  conditions,  may  be 
made  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  farm;  that  is, 
give  it  greater  productive  power. 


APPENDIX  A. 

FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  OF  VARIOUS  PRODI  CT8. 

These   figures    are    compiled    from   the    following    sources  : 

(1)  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1894.      Washington,    D.    C,    Government    Printing   Office,    1895. 

(2)  Futterungslehre,  A.  Conradi.  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  1895.  (,3) 
How  Crops  Grow,  Samuel  W.  Johnson.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New 
York,  1891.  (4)  Landwirtschaftlicher  Kalender  for  1896.  Paul 
Parey,  Berlin,  1896.  (5)  Landwirtschaftliche  Fiitterungslehre,  E. 
von  Wolff.  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  1895.  (6)  Zusaminensetzung  und 
Verdaulichkeit  der  Futtermittel,  Th.  Dietrich  and  .J.  Kiiuig. 
.lulius  Springer,  Berlin,  1891.  (7)  Cornell  University  Experiment 
Station  Analyses.  (8)  Analyses  collected  from  various  and  inci- 
dental sources  by  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station. 

Index  to  the  divisions  in  the  following  tables: 

I'AiiK  PAUI 


Animal  Excrements 373 

Animal  Products 374 

Bedding  Materials 375 

Chan*,  Hulls  and  Shells 370 

Commercial  Plants 378 

Fertilizing  Materials 'MX 

Fruits,  Leaves  and  Nuts '.ibO 

UreenFodders 381 

NOTE.— By  moving   decimal    points    one    place   to   tlie   left,  the   reader   may 
make  the  figures  express  percentages. 


Hay 385 

Leaves,  etc.,  of  Vegetables 390 

Mill  Products 391 

Roots 395 

Seeds  and  Seed  like   Fruits 398 

Straw 400 

Vegetables 401! 


I.  Animal   Excrements— 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Author' 

iu  parentheses).  ity. 

Fresh  from  duck 4 

"  "       geese 4 

"  "       chickens 4 

1 

"  "       pigeon 4 

1373J 


Lbs.   in   l.(HK). 


Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos 
photic 
■eld. 

Pot- 
ash. 

566. 

-•» 

10. 

14. 

6.2 

771. 

95. 

S .  "> 

5.4 

9  5 

560. 

85. 

1G.3 

15.4 

8.5 

600. 

11. 

- 

5  li 

51i>. 

173. 

17.6 

17.8 

10. 

374  Animal   Excrements,  concluded. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses) .                         itv.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Fresh  from  horse £  713.  33.  5.8 

"            «          "      7  931.  4.4 

"           "      ox 4  775.  22.  3.4 

"          "      sheep 4  646.  36.  8.3 

"      swine 4  724.  26.  4.5 

Human  excrements,  fresh 4  772.  30.  10. 

«'                "    1  959.  6. 

"      urine,  fresh 4  963.  13.  6. 

Mixture  of  bcth,  fresh 4  935.  14.  7. 

Liquid  manure 4  982.  11.  1.5 

Ordinary  manure,  fresh 4  750.  38.  3.9 

Ordinary      manure,       somewhat 

rotted 4  750.  58.  5. 

Ordinary  manur3,  well  rotted 4  790.  65.  5.8 

Pigeon  manure,  dry 1  100.  32. 

Sewage  fluid  4  955.  15.  5.5 

"          "      in  large  cities 4  974.  11.  4.5 

Urine,  fresh,   horse 8  901.  28.  15.5 

"           "        cattle 8  938.  27.4  5.8 

"           "        sheep 8  872.  45.2  19.5 

"          "        swine 8  967.  15.  4.3 

II.  Animal  Products—              Lbs-  in  hm> 

Blood,  calf 8  800.  7.1  29. 

"       ox 4  790.  7.9  32. 

"      sheep 8  790.  7.5  32. 

"      swine 8  800.  7.1  29. 

"      meal  (3) 6  84.5  47.3  135. 

Butter 1  79.1  1.5  1.2 

Buttermilk 1  905.  7.  4.8 

"           (85) 6  901.2  7.2  6.4 

Cheese 1  332.5  21.  39.3 

Colostrum 4  730.  11.8  30.7 

Cream 1  740.5  5.  4. 

Eggs 8  672.  61.8  21.8 

"     without  shell •.  4  737.  9.2  20. 

Fat  renderings,  cakes  (5) 6  95.2  63.8  93.8 

Fish-flesh,  meal,  not  fatty  (4)  ...  6  128.  326.  83.9 

"         "         "      fatty  (6)  6  108.  292.1  77.5 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

2.8 

5.3 

1.7 

3.5 

1.6 

4. 

2.3 

6.7 

1.9 

6. 

10.9 

2.5 

1.7 

2. 

1.7 

2. 

2.6 

2.1 

.1 

4.9 

1.8 

4.5 

2.6 

6.3 

3. 

5. 

19. 

10. 

2.8 

2. 

1.9 

2. 

15. 

4.9 

.1 

22.6 

8.3 

.7 

.6 

.8 

.4 

.6 

.4 

.5 

.9 

1.5 

13.5 

7.7 

.4 

.4 

1.7 

1.6 

2.2 

2.1 

6. 

1.2 

3.3 

.9 

1.5 

1.3 

3.7 

1.5 

3.5 

1.6 

26.2 

19.9 

140. 

3. 

120. 

2. 

Animal    Products,  concluded. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses 
in  parentheses). 


Author- 
ity.   Water. 


Flesh   albumin   (2) 6 

"      fodder  meal  (144) 6 

"      meal 8 

•'      calf 8 

"      ox 8 

swine 8 

■'      of  mammals 4 

"       "  living  calf 4 

"       "  living  ox 4 

"       "  living  sheep 4 

"       "  livingswine 4 

"  pulverized  dead  animals  8 

Milk,  cow's 1 

4 

(793) C 

goat's  (38) 6 


mare's  (47). 

sheep's 

•'    (33)  .. 


skim 


(96) 

centrifugal  separation 


(" 
Milk. 
Whey 


)  •• 
sow 


8   (7), 


1461, 


from  goat  milk 4 

Wool,  washed 4 

"        unwashed 4 

III.  Bedding  Materials- 
Beech  leaves,  August 4 

Fir  needles 4 

Heath 8 

Larch  needles 4 

Moss 4 

Oak  leaves 4 


123.6 
106.7 
278. 
780. 
770. 
740. 
763. 
662. 
597. 
591. 
520. 
.")7. 
870. 
875. 
871.7 
857.1 
908. 
816. 
808. 

860. 

;m)L'.:> 

911. 

904.3 

906. 

845.5 

929.7 

933. 

933.8 

920. 

r_'s. 

150. 


560 
135 
200 
140 
250 
160 


Ash. 

119.7 
40.8 

156. 
12. 
12.6 
10.4 
10.2 
38. 
46.6 
31.7 
21.6 

374. 


7.1 
7.6 
3.5 
7.3 
8.9 
8.4 
8. 


7.4 
11. 


5.9 

70.8 


Mi 


21.6 
12.2 
16.6 
34.3 
20.6 
4C.  1 


Nitro- 
gen. 
99.4 
113.9 
97. 
34.9 
36. 
34.7 
35.2 
25. 
26.6 
22.4 
20. 
65. 
5.3 
5.4 
"i.7 
6.8 
3.2 
11.2 
10.4 
5 . .') 
5.6 
4.6 


4.:» 

10.3 

1.5 

.9 

1.4 

1.5 

94.4 

54. 


Phos- 
phoric 

acid. 

21. 
7. 

63. 
5.8 
4.3 
4.6 
4.2 

13.8 

18.6 

12.3 
8.8 
139. 
1.9 

1.9 

3.7 
2.1 
2.6 


2.1 


13. 
8. 

10. 

io.r 

10. 


1.8 

1. 

1.1 

1.3 

1.6 


Pot- 
ash. 
3. 
1. 
7. 
4.1 
5.2 
3.9 
3..S 
2.4 
1.7 
1.5 
1.8 
3. 
1.8 
1.7 
1.7 
2.1 
.8 
1.6 
2.9 
\.H 
1.'.* 
2.1 


2.1  2. 

6.  1.1 

1.4  1.8 

.9  1.7 

1.1  2. 

.8  2.3 

1.8  1.9 


4.4 

1.3 
2.1 

1.6 

3.4 

3.:. 


376  Bedding    Materia  la,  concluded. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                      Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Pine  needles 4  126.  40.3  9. 

Reed 4  180.  33.5 

Rush 4  140.  56. 

Seaweed 4  150.  146.7  16.4 

Sedge  grass 8  140.  16.2 

IV.  Chaff,  Hulls  and  Shells-   Lbs'  '  -  100°- 

Barley  1  130.8  10.1 

4  143.  118.6  4.8 

"       (3) 6  145.  128.4  4.7 

Beans,  field  4  150.  54.7  16.8 

"       2  150.  74.  17. 

"       (2) 6  150.  74.3  17.7 

"       5  150.  55.  16.8 

Bean,  soja 2  1 10.  81.  9.6 

"          "     (6)   6  120.  81.  10.1 

Brassica  rapa  oleifera  (2) 6  152.  78.  5.5 

Chocolate  tree  {Theobroma  Cacao) 

(14) 6  100.  77.7  22.7 

Clover,  red  (4) 6  160.  84.8  22.3 

"        white  (1) 6  150.  75.8  36.6 

Corn    cobs  (18) 1  107.  14.  3.84 

"       1  120.9  8.2  5. 

4  140.  4.5  2.3 

5  131.  23.  5.6 

"       ground(4) 6  100.  31.8  13.1 

Cotton  (4) 1  104.  26.  6.4 

1  106.3  26.1  7.5 

"       (1) 6  133.  27.  6.2 

Flax  ( Camelhia  tativa) 4  112.  43.3  4.3 

"             "                 "        (1) 6  111.6  72.3  4.3 

"             "                 "         5  112.  72.  4.3 

"     [Linum    usitatissimum) 4  116.  53.9  5.6 

"               (1)..  6  115.8  57.8  5.5 

"                    "               5  116.  58.  5.6 

Gleditschia  glabra  ( 1 ) 6  82.4  29.5  7.2 

Lentil    (Lens   esculenta)  (2) 6  150.  70  1  29.3 

Lentil  (Lens  esculenta) 5  140.  85.  33.9 

Lupine  (fruit  shell) 4  143.  19.1  7.2 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot 
ash. 

2. 

1.3 

1.8 

6. 

4.3 

16.9 

4.2 

17.7 

4.6 

17.7 

2.7 

9.9 

2.4 

9.3 

2.4 

9.4 

2.7 

35.5 

2.7       35.3 


1.7 

9.7 

3.6 

9.3 

4.5 

15.3 

4.2 

16.8 

4.2 

17. 

.6 

6. 

_2 

2.3 

1.8 

10.8 

4.3 

10.4 

1.5 

12.7 

1.5 

12.7 

4.5 

15. 

4.4 

15. 

1.8 

10.1 

8.5 

8.5 

9.4 


Chuff,  Hulls    and    Shells,  concluded. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                       Author- 
in  parentheses).                        ity.  Water. 

Lupine  (fruit  shell) 2  12"). 

"     (7) 6  130. 

Meriick,    Black    (Medicago    lupu- 

linn)    (1)   chuff (i  150. 

Millet    (I) •'     (>  120. 

"     .')  112. 

Outs   ••     4  14.'!. 

"    ••     2  136. 

••    (52)    ••     (1  138. 

Peanut  (fruit  shell) 1  100. 

"            "            •'      4  10(5. 

(2) C  100. 

5  100. 

(seed  shell)  (1) f.  108. 

I'eus   (4) hulls  f,  130. 

"      "    2  140. 

Rape  {Braaaica  Napus  olfifera  )"    4  140. 

..    ._,  ]2._, 

••  i  12  i-     I!  160. 

••     .".  129. 

••     1  82. 

"     4  100. 


PhOR 

Nitro-  phoric 

Ash.         ({en.  acid. 
29.           7.2 

59.2        10.8  1.7 


Kiee,   (3) 

"    (10)  • 

Rve    chuff. 


■       (4) •• 

winter •• 

Sorjjhum  (S.  Tataricum)  (1)'' 

i  S.  vulgarr) 

Spelt,    winter " 

(D   •• 

Vetch  or  tare  1 4 ) " 


(Vheat 


(311  ... 
winter. 


0  100. 
5  97. 
::  143. 
2  143. 
li  145. 
4  143. 
fi  145. 
.'i  57. 

4  14.-!. 

<;  1 15. 

t;  I4:i. 

5  150. 

1  80.5 
:!  143. 

1 13. 

6  160. 
4  14.-!. 


80  4 
111.8 
112. 

71.2 
110. 
104.7 

29.9 

30. 

30. 

30. 

51. 

58.  S 

70.1 
65. 

70.0 
70. 

132. 
90. 
145. 


0.4 
7.8 
8. 

10.4 
11.4 
1 1 .3 
11.4 
35.8 
17.4 
16.5 
C.4 
fi.4 


5.8 

157.  5.4 

82.7  5.8 

82.0  7. 

82.7  5.8 

72.:;  5.6 

80.  6.2 

81.4  5.0 

S3..",  4.0 

87.8  U.9 
so.  13.fi 

7i. s  :.'.' 

9 i2.  7.2 


119. 
101. 


6.8 

7.4 


4.2 
1.7 


1.3 


1.4 
1.4 


8.0 
1.7 


Pot 
ash. 


4.4 

4.5 

4  5 
8.1 

9.5 

9.8 

s.9 
9.5 


1.4 

1.1 


378                           Commercial  Plants. 

V.  Commercial  Plants—  ( Lb8'  '?  h(m 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                      Author- 
in  parentheses),                         ity.  Water. 
Flax,  fiber 4  100. 

"      stems 4  120. 

"          "     roasted 4  100. 

Grape  stalks 4  G30. 

"       must 4  840. 

' '       wood  and  twigs 4  550. 

Hemp,  stems 4  108. 

Hops,  whole  plant 4  140. 

"       stems 4  160. 

"       flowers 4  120. 

Mulberry  leaves 4  720. 

Tobacco  leaves 4  180. 

Tea  leaves 4  80. 

Wine  grounds 4  650. 

VI.  Fertilizing  Materials- 
Ammonite  1  58.8 

Ammonium  sulfate 4  40. 

Ash  of  deciduous  trees 4  50. 

"     "  evergreen     "     4  50. 

Ashes,  leached  wood 1  302. 

Bat  guano 1  400. 

Blood  meal 4  134. 

Bone,    ash 4  60. 

"        black   1  46. 

"      8  60. 

"             »«      used 8  100. 

"  "      dissolved 1 

"        charcoal 4  150. 

"        meal 4  130. 

Calcium  phosphate 4  277. 

Carnallit 4  261. 

Castor  pomace 1  95. 

Clover,  red,  root  nodulea 7  793.7 

Corn  smut 8  83. 

Cotton-hull  ashes J  78. 

Fish  guano,  Norway 4  98. 

Gas  lime 4  70. 

Horn  meal  and  shavings 4  85. 


Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

6.8 

.7 

.3 

31.1 

4.2 

9.7 

7. 

.8 

.3 

21.2 

5.6 

1.8 

10.9 

4.7 

1.8 

.6 

3.1 

12.7 

4.1 

1.4 

4.1 

31.7 

2.1 

5.5 

72.9 

25. 

5.8 

17.9 

38.3 

15.7 

3.9 

11.2 

66.3 

32.2 

11.1 

23. 

30.1 

14. 

2.4 

7.3 

140.7 

24.5 

6.6 

40.9 

47.6 

35.6 

7.2 

16.4 

36.7 

4.6 

17.2 

113. 

34.3 

205. 

90. 

35. 

100. 

90. 

25. 

60. 

15.1 

12.7 

82. 

38. 

13.1 

82. 

118. 

12. 

7. 

910. 

354. 
28.28 

3. 

840. 

10. 

32. 

1. 

840. 

5. 

26 
17. 

1. 

780. 

5. 

160 

232. 

23. 

176. 

1. 

597. 

15. 

195. 

1. 

98. 

55. 

17.5 

11. 

11. 

20.9 

88.5 

227.5 

340. 

85. 

138. 

3. 

917. 

4. 

2. 

230. 

102. 

55 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
anil. 

128. 

75. 

5.5 

7.9 

30. 

52 

10. 

321. 

451.9 

8.8 

1.8 

.."> 

Fertilizimj    Materials,   continued.  .'JT'J 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.    Ash.        gen. 

Kainit 4  127. 

Kieserit 4  207. 

Marl 8  56.9 

"     (N.  J.) 1  15. 

Molasses  ash  from  sugar  beet 4  65.      843. 

Muck 1  500.                       1 1 . 

Nitrate  of  potash 1  19.3                   130.9 

"           "  soda 1  14.                     157. 

Oleomargarinerefuse 1  85.4                  121. 

Oyster-shell  lime 1  150. 

Potassium    and    magnesium    sul- 
fate    4  110.                                            272. 

Potassium  chloride,  80% 4  11.                                               527 

Potassium  sulfate.  90% 3  22. 

Pea,  cow,  roots 8  101.0     199.7        0.8 

Peat 1  015.                       8.5 

"    ashes 8  50.       925. 

Phosphate,  Florida 4 

"  Canada 4 

'•          South  Carolina 4  5.       965. 

Phosphate,    South    Carolina    dis- 
solved rock 8  120.       880. 

Peruvian  guano 4  150.       430.         70. 

Seaweed 8  439.4                     19.3 

"        ashes 1  14.7 

Sewage 4  974.         11.           4.5 

Soot,  wood 4  5ii.       282.         13. 

"    coal 4  50.       331 .         24. 

Spent  tan-hark  ashes 1  30. 

Star  iish 8  087. K     160.9       17.2 

Soot  from  wood .h  50.       272.          13. 

"         "     hard  coal 4  50.       281 .         24. 

Sodium    nitrate 4  26.                     155. 

Sugar  house  scum 8  345.       410.          12. 

Sumac    waste 1  630.6                    11.9 

Sylvinit 4  65. 

Tankage 1  100.                     07. 

Tannery  refuse 4  033.        188.          14. 

Thomas  slag 4 

Tobacco  stalks 1  01.8                   37.1 


499. 

0.4 

14.0 

.8 

1.8 

320. 

390. 

205. 

152. 

140. 

33. 

4.3 

26.6 

1.9 

2. 

4. 

24. 

4. 

1. 

10.1 

20.4 

2 . 5 

4.8 

4. 

2.1. 

4. 

1. 

15. 

32.5 

124. 

118. 

13. 

0.5 

50.2 

380 


Fertilizing   Materials,  concluded. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Author- 

in  parentheses.)  ity.    Water. 

Tobacco  stems 4      180. 

Wool  dust,  etc 4       100. 


VII.  Fruits,  Leaves  and  Nut<- 

Apple  leaves,  collected  in  May  . . . 
"          "  Sept... 
fruit 


trees  (young),  branches. . . 

"  "  roots 

"  "  trunks 

"  "  whole  plant 

Apricots,  fresh 

Banana 

Blackberries 

Blueberries 

Cherries,  fruit 


Cherry  trees  (young),  branches.. 

"  "  "  roots 

"         "  "         trunks 

Chestnuts,  native 

"  cultivated 

"  Spanish 

China  berries 

Cranberries,    fruit 

"  vines 

Currants 

Grapes,  fruit  (fresh) 


"      wood  of  vine 

Gooseberries 

Lemons 

Nectarines 

Olives,  fruit 

"       leaves  

"       wood  of  larger  branches . . 

"  "      "  small         " 

Oranges,  California 

Florida 


72:5.6 
607.1 

853. 

831. 

836. 

647. 

517. 

608.3 

851.6 

662.5 

889.1 

826.9 

861. 

825. 

795. 

672. 

532. 

400. 

400. 

100. 

165.2 

895.9 

860.2 
830.  * 
830. 

903. 

838.3 

790. 

580. 

424. 

145. 

187.5 

852.1 

877.1 


Ash. 
64.7 
340. 


Nitro- 
gen. 
16.4 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 
9.2 
13. 


Lbs.  in  1,000. 


23.3 

34.6 

3.9 

2.2 

6.5 

15.9 

11.7 

4.9 

11.5 

5.8 

1.6 

5.8 

3.9 

~.H 

12.2 

8.1 

16.2 

17.8 

26.6 

41.3 

1.8 

24.5 

5.3 

5. 

8.8 

29.7 

3.3 

5.6 

5. 

14.2 
25.1 
9.4 
9.6 
4.3 


7.4 
8.9 

1.3 
.6 


3.5 

1.9 
.8 
1.5 
1.4 
1.8 


11.8 


11.9 


1.6 
1.7 


1.5 
1.2 
1.8 
9.1 
8.8 
8.9 
1.9 
1.2 


1.9 

.1 
.3 
.4 
1.1 
.6 


.4 
3.9 


4.3 
.3 
2.7 
1.1 
.9 
1.4 
4.2 


1.2 

2.6 
1.1 
1.2 


Pot- 
ash. 
28.2 
3. 


3.9 

1.9 

.8 

.4 

.9 

.6 

1.7 

2.9 


.6 
6.3 


2;;.:! 

.9 
3.2 


6.7 
1.3 


8.6 
7.6 
1  8 
o 

2.1 
4.8 


Fruits,   Ijcavea   and  Nuts,  ronchtded .           .1S1 

Sample 
(N*o.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitrn- 

in  pa  rent  hoses).                            ity.  Water.  A>h.       gen. 

Palm  nut 5  76.  18.         13.4 

Peaches,  fruit , 1  878. 5  3.2 

wood  of  branches 1  582.6  19..'!        9. 

Peanuts,  hulls 1  100.  29.9       10.4 

kernels  1  100.  22.1       40.1 

vines,  after  blooming. ..   1  100.  123.6 

"     before       "         ...   1  300.  74..". 

Pears,  fruit 1  839.2  .">.!           .0 

"    4  831.  :(.:s        .6 

trees  (young),  branches. ..  1  840.  7.<i 

roots 1  067.  14. 

trunks 1  40."!.  17.1 

Pineapples 1  892.8  3.5           .2 

Plums 1  474.:!  .">.4         1.8 

"       4  838.  2.9 

Prunes 1  77.'!. 8  4.9         1.6 

Raspberries 1  Mh.2  5.5         I..") 

Strawberries,  fruit 1  908. 4  ti.           l.."> 

"      4  902.  ::.:: 

"  vines 1  '.:.;.  J 

Whortleberries 8  824. 2  4.1 

VIII.  Green  Fodders-  ''"»  '"  ! """ 

Alfalfa 1  7.-.:.  22.:.         7.2 

4  740.  19.2         7.2 

(11) 6  760.,  22.1         6.2 

Apple  pomace,  silage 6  7.">0.  10..">         3.2 

Aspen.   American  (4) 0  700.  28.          6.4         1  H 

Parley,    during    and    at    end    of 

bloom  (11) i;  686.3  L'o.i       :t.:t       2. 

Bean,  horse  (  Vicia  Faba) 1  717.1                     6.8        3.:! 

Bean,  horse  |  Vicin  Faba),  begin- 
ning of  bloom  I'll 6  850.  19.8         ."..1          1.:: 

Beech,     European.     August     ami 

September  (4) 6  570.  31.2       II.          1.7 

Biroh.    European    white,    in    Au- 
gust (3) 6  550.  15.7       12.7          1.3 

Buckwheat,  in  bloom 4  850.  12.4         3.9           > 

••     (7) 6  8::7.  11.4        4.             : 

Clover.   Alsike 1  Ms.  14.7         4.4          1.1 


Phos- 
phoric 

afi'l 

Pot 

ash. 

.5 

2.4 

•i 

t 

5. 

I 

4 

8.1 

8 

•) 

-  - 

•> 

9 

9. 

3 

•  » 

11. 6 

5 

1.8 

4 

.8 
1.1 

., 

2.4 

4 

1.7 

1 
1 

s 
1 

:t.:. 

3. 

4 

8 

;».:> 

1.3 

5.6 

1.6 

4.5 

1.5 

3.5 

1.5 

4. 

13.; 

8. 


3.4 

- 

2.8 


382  Green    Fodders,  continued. 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses),                         ity.  Water.  Ash. 

Clover,  Alsike 4  820.  8.6 

"      (3) 6  818.  14.7 

Clover,  Bokhara,    beginning   and 

full  bloom  (6) 6  797.  23.4 

Clover,  crimson 1  825. 

"        4  815.  11.3 

"        (9) 6  815.  18.6 

red,  very  young 4  8G0.  14. 

"      (18) 6  832.  18. 

"     in  bud 4  820.  14.7 

"           •'      "     "   (11) 6  841.  14. 

bloom 4  800.  13.7 

"      "       "       (42) 6  790.  16. 

"      "       "       1  800. 

"       white 1  810. 

"           "      in  bloom 4  805.  14. :i 

"      "      "     (3) 6  815.  21.1 

"       pasture 4  750.  16.4 

"       (21)   6  850.  13.5 

"      yellow 8  830.  14.7 

Erica    vulgaris,     before      bloom- 
ing (3) 6  500.  29. 

Esparsette,  in  bloom 4  800.  11. 

"       "      (3) 6  800.  12.2 

Grape,    July   6  746.  19.8 

August    6  760.  18.3 

harvest   6  540.  49.2 

Hop,  leaves  and  stems  6  660.  41 . 

Italian    rye-grass  (Lolium  Itali- 

cum),  in  bloom  (8) 6  748.5  28.4 

Lupine,  yellow  (Lupinus  luteus), 

beginning  of  bloom  (7) 6  878.  10. 

Maize,  fodder 1  786.1  48.4 

•«      4  829.  10.4 

"      (45) 6  828.  14.7 

»•      8  822.  12. 

-«        European  seed  (34 ) 6  806.  12.2 

"        husks 8  861.9  5.6 

"        stalks 8  808.6  12.5 

"       silage 1  779.5 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot 
ash. 

5.3 

.9 

2.4 

4.4 

1.1 

2. 

6.6 

2.4 

6.7 

4.3 

1.3 

4.9 

4.3 

.8 

2.6 

4.5 

1.2 

4. 

6. 

1.7 

5.1 

6.9 

2.1 

6.1 

5.3 

1.5 

5.5 

5.3 

1.3 

4.8 

4.8 

1.3 

4.4 

5.4 

1.5 

4.8 

5.3 

1.3 

4.6 

5.6 

2. 

2.4 

5.6 

1.8 

3.1 

7.1 

2.1 

3.6 

5.3 

1.6 

7.6 

5.8 

1.8 

6.5 

4.5 

1.1 

3.2 

5.6 

.5 

•2..-> 

5.1 

1.1 

3.1 

5.6 

1.1 

3.2 

9.6 

2.6 

4.6 

7. 

1.9 

4.3 

6.5 

1.3 

4.6 

7.5 

4. 

8.8 

5.4 


2.9       11.4 


4.7 

1.2 

1.4 

4.1 

1.5 

3.3 

1.9 

1. 

3.7 

2.2 

1.1 

3.9 

1.9 

1.3 

».3 

2.7 

1. 

3.9 

1.8 

.7 

2.2 

2.8 

1.4 

4.1 

2.8 

1.1 

3.7 

Green   Fodders,  continued. 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses).  ity.  Water.    Ash. 

Maple  foliage,  in  summer  (5) 6  500.         72.9 

Medick,    black    (Medicago    lupu- 

lina),  beginning  of  bloom  (4)  0  800.         16.4 

Millet 1  625.8 

"      (6) 6  870.         12. 

'•      Japanese 1  710.5 

Mixed   grasses 1  631.2       32.7 

"       4  700.         22.1 

"  "      in   bloom 4  750.         17.5 

'      (31) 6  700.  21. 

Mohar    (Setaria  Germanica),  be- 
ginning of  bloom 4  750.  1 7.4 

Mohar  (Setaria  Germanica),  dur- 
ing bloom  (6) 6  730.         23. 

Mulberry    (34 ) 6  692.7      35. 1 

Mustard,  white,  beginning  to  full 

bloom  (6) 6  851.         14.2 

Needles   from  pines   and    ttrs    in 

fall   (3) 6  508.  19.7 

Nettle  (Trtica  dioica),  young  (2)  6  832.         22.7 

Oats,  in  bloom  (12) 6  768.5       17.6 

"      ripening    (11) 6  536.         28. 

'•      green 8  810.  18.8 

"     4  810.  14.2 

Oat-fodder 1  833.6       13.1 

Orchard    grass     (  Dactylix  glome- 

rata ) ' ' 4  700. 

Orchard    grass    (Dactylix   glome- 
rata),  before  and  at  beginning 

of  bloom  (5) 6  796.         18.6 

Orchard    grass    (Dactylis    glome- 

rata),  in  bloom  (12) 6  631.4       20.9 

Orchard     grass  (Dactylis    glome- 

rata),  luxuriant  growth  (2)..   6  861.         16. 

Pea 4  815.  13.9 

"    (3) 6  824.  13.3 

Pea,    flat    (Lathyrus    sytvextris), 

beginning  to  end  of  bloom  (6)  6  716.         19.3 
Prickly      comfrey      (Symphytum 

asperrimum)    (17) 6  885.  19.8 


Nitro- 
gen. 
13. 


a. a 
6.1 
2.2 
5.3 
9.1 
5.4 
4.8 
4.9 


4.5 
9.5 


383 

Phos- 
phoric Pot- 
acid  ash. 
3.5  8. 


4. 
4.1 
4.7 
3.4 


3.1 
5 . 5 
3.7 
3.7 
4.9 


7  1 
4.7 
0.2 

6.3 

6.1 
8.4 


2.9 
3.4 
6.8 
8.8 
7.5 
5.6 
3.8 

5.9 


3.3 

1.3 

6.5 

4.3 

1.6 

7.6 

5.1 

1.3 

6.5 

5.1 

1.5 

5.2 

5.7 

1.6 

5. 

11.3 

1.8 

5.8 

3.9 

.7 

4.8 

384  Green    Fodders,  continued. 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen,        acid.       ash. 

Prickly      comfrey     (Symphytum 

asperrimum) 1       843.6      24.5        4.2         1.1         7.5 

Rape  (Brassica  Napus  oleifera), 

beginning  of  bloom 4      870.         10.5        4.6        1.2        3.5 

Rape  (Brassica  Napus  oleifera), 

in  bloora  (6) (i      855.         13.4        4.5         1.5        3.6 

Rye 1       621.  3.3         1.5        7.3 

"     4       760.         16.3        5.3        2.4        6.3 

"     (9) 6       766.         17.4        5.3        2.5        7.1 

"     h      669.        21.5        4.8        2.6        7.6 

•'     grass 4       700.         20.4        5.7        2.2        7.1 

Rye  grass,  English  (Lolium  per- 

enne),  in  bloom  (13) 6       752.         26.  4.7        2.8       11. 

Rye      grass,       French      (Arena 

elatior)   (9) 6       684. K       29.  5.6         2.2         9.3 

Serradella,  in  bloom 1       H25.it       18.2         4.1         1.4         4.2 

"      •' 4       800.         19.6        4.8        2.2         7.7 

"      "       (6) 6       823.         14.5         5.  1.6         5.5 

Sorghum    (S.    saccharinum),   in 

bloom 8       773.         13.  4.  .8         3.6 

Sorghum     (S.    saccharinum  J,    in 

bloom 1       821.9  2.3  .9        2.3 

Sorghum    (S.    saccharinum ),   in 

bloom  (26) 6       801.5       13.7         3.3  .7         3.4 

Sorghum    (S.     saccharinum ),    in 

bloom 4       773.         14.  4.  .8         3.9 

Spurry   (  Spengula    arretisis),    in 

bloom  (9) 6       803.         21.  3.8         2.5         5.9 

Timothy,    Ix-ginning    to    end    of 

bloom 4       700.         20.5        5.4        2.4         7.1 

Timothy,    beginning    to    etui    of 

bloom  (22) 6       669.         21.5         4.8         2.6         7.6 

Vetch,  in  bloom  (6) 6      825.         15.4        5.1         1.2        4.3 

"       beginning  of  bloom  | ::  i...  6      845.         19.4        5.9         1.9        7. 
Vetch,    Russian   or  hairy   (  \'icia 
villosa),  beginning  to  end  of 

bloom  (7) (»       834.         13.9        6.6        1.6        4.! 

Vetch,  kidney  ( A  iithyllis  vulne- 
rarui),  before  and  beginning 
of  bloom  (4) 6      820.         13.5        3.8         1.1         3.3 


Qreen    Fodders,  concluded.  385 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses  Author-  Xitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen.        acid.       ash. 

Vetch,  kidney   ( Anthyllis  vulne- 

raria),  in  bloom 4 

Wheat  (4) G 

IX.  Hay- 
Alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa)  (21) . . .   1 

1 

Alfalfa     ( Medicago    sativaj,    be- 
ginning of  bloom 4 

Alfalfa    (Medicago     sativa),    be- 
ginning of  bloom 2 

Alfalfa    (Medicago     sativa)     be- 
ginning of  bloom  (15) <> 

Alfalfa     (Medicago      sativa)     in 

bloom  ( 117) 0 

Alfalfa      (Medicago      sativa)      in 

bloom 5 

Alfalfa,  Black  Medick  (Medicago 

lupulina)  (7) (! 

Ipine   hay 4 

"   (43) 6 


Bean  (field),  in  bloom  (1) (i 

"     soja,  whole  plant 1 

Black  grass  (./uncus  (Jerardi)  (20)  1 
Blue  melilot  (  Met  Hot  us  catruleus)  1 

Buckwheat  (3 ) 1 

4 

•> 

(12) 0 

5 

Japanese 1 

Couch  grass  (Agropyrum   repots) 

(5) 1 

Clover,    Alsike     (  Tri  folium     hy- 

bridum)    (9) 1 

Clover,     Alsike    ( Tri  folium      hy- 

bridu  m) 1 

Clover,    Alsike      ( Trifolium     hy- 
brid n in  ) 4 


Z 


830. 

10.9 

4.5 

1. 

3. 

767. 

21.9 
Lbs. 

5.4 
in  1.000. 

1.5 

7. 

84. 

74. 

22.9 

6.">.  5 

70.7 

21.9 

5.1 

16.8 

1G0. 

G2. 

23. 

5.3 

14.6 

1G7. 

60. 

23. 

157.5 

7.-f.  1 

23.9 

5.4 

14.9 

153. 

M0. 2 

22.9 

6.1 

17.9 

1G0. 

62. 

23. 

160. 

75.2 

24.G 

5.4 

20.8 

150. 

29.7 

18.5 

2.7 

7.7 

145. 

64.3 

19.3 

6.8 

18.6 

143. 

62. 

21.6 

1G0. 

67.5 

29.6 

6.4 

20.5 

63. 

64.7 

23.2 

6.7 

1U.8 

95. 

70. 

12. 

82.2 

136.5 

19.2 

5.4 

28. 

99. 

55. 

8.3 

1G0. 

51.7 

13. 

6.1 

24.2 

121. 

52. 

6.6 

1G0. 

70.2 

7.7 

6.1 

24.2 

104. 

50. 

6.2 

57.2 

16.3 

8.5 

33.2 

143. 

GO. 

14.1 

97. 

83. 

20.5 

99.4 

111.1 

23.4 

6.7 

22.3 

160. 

40. 

24. 

4.1 

11.1 

386  Hay,  continued. 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen.        acid.       ash. 

Clover,     Alsike     (Trifolium    hy- 

bridum) 2 

Clover,     Alsike    (Trifolium     hy- 

bridum),  in  bloom  (10)  6 

Clover,    Alsike     (Trifolium     hy- 

bridum),  in  bloom 5 

Clover,  Bokhara  ( Melilotns  alba)  1 
a       2 
Clover,  Bokhara  (Melilotus  alba), 

young 5 

Clover,   crimson    (Trifolium    in- 

carnatum) 4 

Clover,    crimson   (Trifolium    in- 

camatttm) 2 

Clover,    crimson    (Trifolium    in- 

camatum)  (9) 6 

Clover,    crimson    (Trifolium    in- 

carnatum) 5 

Clover,  mammoth  red 1 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratense) 

(38) 1 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratense)  1 

2 
Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratense) 

(59) 6 

Clover,  red  (Trifolium  pratense)  5 

Clover,  red,  young 4 

in  bud 4 

"     "    (20) 6 

in  bloom  (6) 1 

'•       "       4 

"       "       (178) 6 

ripening 4 

Clover,   red  (Trifolium  medium) 

(10) 1 

Clover,    red  (Trifolium  medium)  1 
Clover,   red  (Trifolium  medium) 

in  bloom  (5) 1 

Clover,  white,  in  bloom  (7) 1 

"       "       •«      1 


160. 

61. 

23.7 

160. 

71.2 

21.6 

5. 

53.9 

*30. 

60. 

24. 

74.3 

77. 

19.8 

5.6 

18.3 

136, 

83. 

25.3 

143. 

80. 

26.7 

167. 

50.7 

19.5 

3.6 

11.7 

139. 

69. 

17.1 

183. 

77. 

26.5 

4. 

13.1 

167. 

51. 

19.5 

114. 

87.2 

22.3 

.").."> 

12.2 

153. 

62. 

19.7 

113.3 

69.3 

20.7 

3.8 

'12. 

160. 

56. 

21.4 

163. 

62.8 

21.8 

5.6 

18.9 

160. 

53. 

19.6 

167. 

82.3 

35.5 

10. 

29.7 

165. 

68.4 

24.5 

6.9 

25.3 

162. 

80.1 

22.9 

6.9 

25.4 

208. 

66. 

18.4 

160. 

57.6 

19.7 

5.6 

18.6 

170. 

62.1 

21.2 

5.5 

18.7 

150. 

44.7 

12.5 

4  4 

10. 

212. 

61. 

17.1 

114. 

87.2 

22.3 

5.5 

12.2 

209. 

66. 

78.4 

97. 

83. 

*5.1 

27.5 

5.2 

18.1 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

61.1 

23.2 

7.8 

13.1 

95. 

23.8 

67. 

23.8 

7.8 

13.2 

60. 

23.2 

99 

17.9 

24.6 

60. 

Yc. 

61.8 

12. 

Hay,  continued.  387 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water. 

Clover,  white,  in  bloom 4  165. 

•'       "        "       2  167. 

"       "        "      (6) 6  160. 

"       "        "       5  165. 

French  rye  grass  (Arena  elatior), 

cut  in  bloom  (15) 6  143.         81.2       16.6        6.         24. 

French  rye  grass  (Arena  elatior ), 

cut  in  bloom 5  143. 

Hedysarum  coronarium 1  93.9                  24.6        4.5      20.9 

Hungarian    grass    (Setaria    Ital- 

ira)    (12) 1  7 

Hungarian  grass  (Setaria  Italica)  1  76.9      61.8       12.          3.5       13. 
Italian    rye    grass  (Lolium  Itali- 

eum).  cut  in  bloom 1  87.1                    11.9        5.6       12.7 

Italian   rye   grass  (Lolium   Ifali- 

eitm),  cut  in  bloom  (6) 6  120.       102.5      20.8        7.6      24.6 

Italian    rye   grass  (Lolium   ltali- 

cum),  cut  in  bloom 5  143.         78.         17.9 

Kentucky   blue    grass    ( Poa   pra- 

tensis) 1  103.5 

Lotus  villosus 1  115.2 

Lupine,  yellow  (3) 6  160. 

Maize,   stalks 4  150. 

"     6  200. 

fodder,  with  ears 1  78.5 

"             "          without  ears 1  91.2 

Meadow  hay 4  143. 

"    (393) 6  137. 

"   best  (141) 6  146. 

"           "    poor  (145) 6  138. 

Meadow    hay,    in    localities    with 

weak-boned    animals 4  140. 

Meadow   fescue  (Featuea  praten- 

sis) 1  88.9 

Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurux  pra- 

tensis) 1  153.5 

Millet,  common 1  97.5 

"      Japanese 8  104.5 

"      different  species  (2) 6  150. 

5  150 


41.6 

11.9 

4. 

15.7 

82.3 

21. 

5.9 

18.1 

50.8 

29.6 

6.7 

8.8 

45.3 

4.8 

3.8 

16.4 

47.9 

8.9 

3.5 

15.4 

49.1 

17.6 

5.4 

8.9 

37.4 

10.4 

2.9 

14. 

59.8 

15.6 

4.3 

16. 

f.4.5 

14.7 

4.1 

13.2 

71.4 

19.2 

4.8 

15.2 

53.6 

10.9 

3.4 

11. 

44.5 

14.4 

2.3 

12. 

80.8 

9.9 

4. 

21. 

52.4 

15.4 

4.4 

19.9 

12.8 

4.9 

16.9 

58. 

11.1 

4. 

12.2 

73.6 

7.3 

2.9 

4.8 

74. 

7.4 

388  Hay,  continued. 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen.       acid.       ash. 

Millet  (Panicum   miliaceum) ]        97.5  12.8        4.9      16.9 

"      Japanese 1       104.5      58.        11.1        4.        12.2 

Mustard,  white,  beginning  to  full 

bloom  (7) 6       150.         74.5       17.7        8.1       13.6 

Oats,  in  bloom (6) 6      115.        61.1       11.9        6.7      25.4 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylis    glome- 

rata)    (10) 1         99.         60.         13. 

Orchard    grass  ( Dactylis    glome- 

rata) 1         88.4       64.2       13.1         4.1       18.8 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylis    glome- 

rata) 4       143.         50.8  3.6       16.7 

Orchard    grass  (Dactylis    glome  - 

ntto;,  cut  in  bloom  (11) 6      143.        64.3      13.1        3.7      16.9 

Ox-eye     daisy     (Chrysanthemum 

Leucanthemum  ) 1         96.5      63.7        2.8        4.4       12.5 

Pea     ( Lathy  rus      sylvestris)     in 

bloom  (10)  6       172.         60.8      33.1         5.1       16.9 

Pea,  green 4      167.        62.4      22.9        6.8      23.2 

"     cow,  whole  plant  (8)'. 1       107.         75.         26.6 

"         "  "       1       109.5      84.         19.5        5.2       14.7 

"     (8) 1       107.         75.         26.6 

"     (Lathyrus  sylvestris)  (3)  ...  6       150.         51.1       19.4        2.7        6.3 

5       140.         48.         19.2 

Perennial     rye     grass     (Lolium 

perenne) 1         91.3      67.9       12.3        5.6       15.5 

Perennial      rye      grass     (Lolium 

perenne) 4       143.         58.2       16.3        6.2      20.2 

Perennial    rye      grass      (Lolium 

perenne),  cut  in  bloom  (11)..  6       132.5     100.2       17.7        7.4      24.1 
Perennial      rye      grass     (Lolium 

perenne)  cut  in  bloom 5       143.        65.         16.3 

Poa  maritima 4      150.        57.9  2.6        6.6 

Red-top  (Agrostis  vulgaris)  (9). .   1         89.         52.         12.6 

"  "  "  1         77.1       45.9       l't,')        3.6       10.2 

Red-top   (Agrostis    vulgaris)  cut 

in  bloom  (3) 1        87.        49.        12.8 

Rowen  of  mixed  grasses 1       185.2      95.7      16.1        4.3      14.9 

Sainfoin   (Onobrychis   sativa),  in 

bloom 1       121.7       75.5      26.3        7.6      20.2 

Sainfoin    (Onobrychis  sativa),  in 

bloom 4       167.         45.8      22.1         4.6       13. 


tiny,  continued. 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Author- 

in  parentheses).  ity.    Water. 

Sainfoin   (Onobrychis  sativa),  in 

bloom 2       149. 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis   sativa),   in 

bloom  (29) 6       155. 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  sativa ),  be- 
ginning of  bloom  (6) G       157.5 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  sativa),  be- 
ginning of   bloom 5       158. 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  sativa),  in 

bloom 5      167. 

Salt  marsh  hay 8        53.6 

Serradella  (Ornitkopus  sativus). .   1         7:5.9 

"  "  ..   4        !G7. 

"  "  "         ..   2       150. 

Serradella   (Ornithopus    sativus) 

beginning  to  end  of  bloom  (9 1  (i       160. 
Serradella    (Ornithopus    sativus) 

in  bloom 5      160. 

Serradella  (Ornithopus  sativus)..   1  7.'t.9 

"       (1)  6       150. 

Setaria   Gernianica  (23) 6       124. 

Scotch  tares 1       158. 

Spurry  (Spergula  arvensis)  (9)..  6       150. 
Sedge,    creek    (Spartina    stricta, 

var.  glabra)   (5) 1        83. 

Tall  meadow  oat-grass  ( Arrhena- 

therum  avenaceum) 1        1511.5 

Teosinte  (Ettchlcena  luxurious) . .   1        60.6 
Timothy  (Phleum  pratenae)  (68).   1       132. 

"  "  "  1  75.2 

"  "  (69).   6       143. 

Timothy    [Phleum   pratenae),  cut 

in  full  bloom  (12) 1       150. 

Timothy    {Phleum    pratense),  cut 

soon  after  bloom  ( 11 ) 1        142. 

Timothy    (Phleum   pratenae)   cut 

when  nearly  ripe  (12) 1       141. 

Vetch,    kidney  (Anthyllis   vulne- 

ruria  l  in  bloom 4        167. 


389 


Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

58. 

21.3 

52.4 

21.2 

4.6 

13.2 

67. 

24.6 

5. 

14.7 

67. 

24.6 

62. 

21.3 

11.8 

2.5 

7.2 

100. 

27. 

7.8 

6.5 

81.6 

21.6 

9.1 

31.9 

72. 

24.3 

67..'! 

24.7 

7.4 

26.3 

81. 

25.9 

106. 

27. 

7.8 

6.5 

54.9 

20.7 

4.2 

12.7 

58.5 

13.9 

3.6 

22.2 

29.6 

8.2 

30. 

91. 

16.4 

8.7 

21.2 

107. 

10.6 

49.2 

11.6 

3.2 

17.2 

65.3 

14.6 

5.5 

37. 

44. 

9.4 

49.3 

12.6 

5.3 

9. 

41.1 

10. 

5. 

14.1 

45. 

8.4 

44. 

9.1 

39. 

8> 

53.2 

22  1 

4.7 

14.5 

300  Hay,  concluded. 

Sample  Phos- 

(No.  of  analyses  Author-  Nitro-    phoric     Pot- 

in  parentheses),  ity.    Water.    Ash.      gen.        acid.       ash. 

Vetch,    kidney  (AnthyUis   vulne- 

raria)  in  bloom 2       151.         60.         15.5 

Vetch,    kidney  (AnthyUis    vulne- 

raria)  in  bloom  (12) 6       160.         55.9       15.  4.5       12. 

Vetch  {Vicia   Cracca),  beginning 

to  end  of  bloom  (5) 6       165.         43.2      27.7        4.6       14.C 

Vetch  (  Vicia  Cracca),  beginning 

of  bloom 5       156.         58.         37. 

Vetch  (Vicia  Cracca),  in  bloom..  5      165.        43.        29.7 
Vetch     (Vicia    dumetorium),    in 

bloom  (1) 6       160.         52.         33.8        5.5       17.6 

Vetch  (  Vicia  sepium),  in   bloom 

(1) 6       167.         61.         30.7         6.4       20.4 

Vetch  (Vicia   sativa),    in    bloom 

(7) 6       167.         87.         27.9         7.3       23.3 

Vetch   (  Vicia   villosa ) ,  in   bloom 

(2) 6       160.         84.1      36.8        9.7      24.4 

X.  Leaves,  etc.,  of  Vegetables- 
Artichoke,    Jerusalem     (HeUan-  Lbs,  in  1.000. 

thus  tuberosus) 4  8(H).  14.5  5.3          .7  3.1 

Artichoke,    Jerusalem     (Helian- 

thus  tuberosus)  (4) 6  553.2  71.5  5.5  2.8  11.7 

Beet,  common 4  905.  14.6  3.  1.  4.5 

"            "        (19) 6  890.  19.9  3.8          .9  5.1 

"      sugar 4  897.  15.3  3.            .7  4. 

"     (8) 6  880.  23.9  4.1  1.5  6.2 

Cabbage  (Brassica  Napus  rapif- 

era) 4  884.  19.6  3.4  2.  2.8 

Cabbage  (Brassica  Napus  rapif- 

era)  (1) 6  870.  16.9  4.3  1.6  2.2 

Cabbage  (Brassica   oleracea  pro- 

cera)  (7) 6  856.3  14.1  4.2  2.2  5.2 

Cabbage 4  890.  15.6  2.4  1.4  5.8 

"       stems 8  820.  11.6  1.8  2.4  5.1 

Carrot 4  822.  23.9  5.1  1.  2.9 

"      at  root  harvest  (4) 6  818.  42.6  5.5  1.1  2.7 

Chicory  4  850.  16.5  3.5  1.  4.3 

Corn,  cobs 1  801.  5.9  2.1          .5  2.2 


Leaves,  etc.,  of  Vegetables, 

Simple 
(No.  of  analyses                      Author- 
in  parentheses).                        ity.  Water. 

Corn,  husks 1  861.9 

"      stalks 1  808.6 

Mangel-wurzel 8  905. 

Parsnip,  in  May  ( 1 ) 6  831.5 

Potato,  shortly  before  harvest 4  770. 

"            "            "            "       (3).  6  770. 

"       July  and  August 4  825. 

"       "           "       (6) 6  850. 

Sweet  potato 1  800.6 

Rhubarb,  roots 1  743.5 

Succory 8  850. 

Tomato  vines 1  733. 1 

"           "     1  836.1 

Turnip 4  898. 

XI.  Mill  Products- 
Apple   pomace 1  805. 

'*             "       (5) 6  740. 

"      dried  (1) 6  100. 

Barley,  flour 4  140. 

"        bran 4  120. 

"    (21) 6  123. 

"       middlings 4  130. 

(16) 6  132. 

"       ground 1  134. .1 

Beer 8  900. 

Beech-nut   cake,    unshelled    nuts 

(24) 6  151. 

Beech-nut  cake,  shelled  nuts  (5).   6  104.5 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 1  91.4 

"              "          "   (166) 6  95. 

"        wet 1  750.1 

"               "          "    4  766. 

"    (158) 6  762.2 

Buck  wheat  bran,  coarse  (5) 6  156. 

"      fine  (9) 6  120. 

"               "         "     4  140. 

"           middlings,  coarse   (6)  6  120. 

"                    "           fine  (9)...  6  147. 


concluded, 

391 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash 

5.6 

1.8 

.7 

2.2 

12.5 

2.8 

1.4 

4.1 

14.1 

3. 

.8 

4.1 

25.9 

2.9 

.8 

2.5 

19.7 

4.9 

1.6 

4.3 

31.3 

4. 

1.8 

4.6 

16.5 

6.3 

1.2 

4.4 

15.5 

5.7 

1.2 

3.8 

24.5 

4.2 

.7 

7.3 

22.8 

5.5 

.6 

5.3 

16.5 

3.5 

1. 

4.3 

117.2 

2.4 

.6 

2.9 

30. 

3.2 

.7 

5. 

11.9 

3. 

.9 

2.8 

Lbs. 

in  1.000. 

2.7 

2.3 

2 

1.3 

8.2 

2.6 

.1 

.3 

28.1 

8.8 

3.6 

.9 

20. 

16. 

9.5 

5.8 

49.5 

17.6 

9.1 

8.3 

70. 

16.5 

10.5 

9.2 

21.1 

10.8 

5.5 

28.5 

2(1.2 

17.4 

6.9 

20.6 

15.5 

6.6 

3.4 

6.2 

o_ 

2.1 

47.2 

29.9 

10. 

6.8 

70.5 

58. 2 

I4.:i 

10. 

39.2 

36.2 

10.3 

.9 

47.2 

33. 

16.1 

2. 

8.9 

3.1 

.5 

10.6 

7.8 

3.9 

.4 

12.4 

8.1 

4.2 

.5 

28. 

12.8 

4.2 

12.7 

70. 

24.3 

13.2 

15.8 

29.8 

27  2 

10.7 

9.7 

47. 

50.8 

12.3 

11.4 

14. 

13.8 

6.8 

3.4 

892 


Mill   Products,  continued. 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses 
In  parentheses). 

Buckwheat,  hulls 1 

"    (2) 6 


Brassica  rapa  oleifera  (35) G 

Cacao  cake  (5) 6 

"         "     (20) G 

"         "     4 

Cocoa  cake  or  meal 4 

"     "      "     (73) 

Corn,  cobs 

meal 


and  cob  meal 

middlings,  coarse  (15) 

"  fine  (21) 

sprouts  cake  (232) G 

Cotton-seed  cake,  from  unshelled 

seed   ( 46 ) 6 

Cotton-seed    cake,    from    shelled 

seed  (84) 6 

Cotton-seed  cake 4 

hulls  (4) 1 

"       1 

"      6 

meal 1 

"     (142) 6 

Grape  pomace,  fresh  (2) 6 

"  "         fermented  (4) 6 

Gluten  meal 1 

Hemp-seed  cake    (33) 6 

Hominy  feed 1 

Hops,  after  brewing  (5) 6 

"       spent 7 

Lentil,  middlings  (1) G 

Linseed  cake 4 

"  •'    (900) 6 

•*  meal,  o.  p 2 

"  ««         "     6 

"  "       n.  p 1 

»  "         "    (20) 0 


Author- 
ity.   Water. 
119. 
132. 
132. 
107.2 
100. 

90. 

77. 
127. 
103.5 
120.9 
129.5 
140. 

89.G 
130. 
152. 
114.3 


86.5 
112. 
104. 
106.3 
133. 

99. 

88.2 
750. 
675. 

85.9 
120. 

89.3 
109.4 
755. 
134. 
122. 
110. 

88.8 

90 

77.  V 
110. 


Ash. 

22.3 

22. 

77.3 

81.3 

88.5 

78.5 

53.3 

60.2 

8.2 
14.1 

5.9 

19.4 

14. 

19.2 


Nitro- 
gen. 
4.9 
7.3 
7.4 
52.3 
30. 
72.1 
84.5 
37.4 
32.8 
5. 

15.8 
16. 
14.1 
13.6 
15.1 
26.5 


118.6      63.8      38.8 


70.4 

66.4 

26. 

26.1 

27. 

68.2 

70.5 

4.1 
15.6 

7.3 
79.7 
22.1 
64. 

24. 

51.3 

i;.-...-) 

60.8 

60.3 

53.7 

62.1 


70.6 

62.1 

6.4 

7.5 

6.2 

66.4 

69. 

9. 

7.2 

50.3 

49. 

16.3 

24.5 

10.8 

41.3 

47.2 

45.8 

54.3 

52.1 

57.8 

56.4 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 
.7 
4.3 

20. 

32. 

43.3 

40.1 

13. 

16. 

.6 
6.3 
2.7 
5.7 
4.4 
3. 


32.5 
30.5 

1.8 

4.3 

26.8 

30.4 

.5 

2. 

3.3 
25.2 

9.8 
10.8 

3.2 

6.5 
16.2 
16.2 
16.6 
16.2 
18.3 
17.4 


Pot- 
ash. 
5.2 
14.7 

13. 

26. 

19. 

17.5 

19.6 

24. 
6. 
4. 
1.7 
4.7 
2.6 
1.7 
5. 


.8       16.1 


15.8 
15.8 

10.8 
10.4 
17.9 
15.8 

2. 

7.8 
.5 
14. 

4.9 

4.6 

4. 

7.8 
12.5 
12.5 
13.7 
12.5 
13.9 
13.4 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

10.7 

2.6 

5.5 

10.4 

5.3 

2.5 

16. 

9.3 

4.4 

16.2 

4.2 

8.8 

35.5 

14.3 

16.3 

.'16.8 

18.2 

20.8 

:t7. 

17.4 

19.9 

46. 

16.2 

18.8 

46.6 

16.2 

18.7 

3.5 

1.9 

1.3 

45.9 

40.9 

27. 

2.7 

1.8 

1.2 

37. 

33.5 

22.4 

3.2 

19.5 

12.2 

37.1 

20.4 

12.7 

1.6 

1.3 

3. 

1.8 

1.1 

2.4 

33.2 

19.7 

48.1 

Mill    Products,  continued.  393 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses),                         ity.  Water.  Ash. 

Malt,  green,  barley    (4) 6  453.5  21. 

"          "            "         4  475.  14.0 

"      dry,  barley 4         75.  25.6 

"        "           "      (5) 6  120.  28.5 

"      sprouts,  barley 1  183.8  124.8 

"      4        80.  67.6 

"      (128) 6  120.  75.1 

wheat  (3) 6  145.  64. 

corn  (3) 6  150.  63. 

Mash,  wheat,  fresh  (2) 6  890.5  4.2 

"             "      dry  (1) 6  120.  87. 

"       rye,  fresh  (20) 6  922.  4.1 

•'     dry  (23) 6  106.  73. 

"       corn,  fresh  (8) 6  913.2  4.6 

"      dry  (5) 6        94.  44.2 

"       potato,  fresh 4  930.  6.6 

"           "      (33) 0  943.  6.7 

dry   (3) 6  126.3  147.8 

Middlings,    mixed,     best    quality 

(22) 6  128.  33.         22.6       12.2         9.6 

Middlings,  mixed,  poorer  quality 

(22) 6  125.  56. 

Millet,  bran  (5) 6  106.  115. 

"       middlings  (3) 6  111.  49. 

Molasses  slump 8  920.  14. 

Oats,   ground 1  111.7  33.7 

"       bran  (4) 6  110.  82.8 

"      middlings,  coarse  (6) 6  100.  62. 

fine  (6) 6  100.  52. 

Oat  hulls 8  140.  34.7 

Olive  cake 4  138.  27.8 

Palm-nut  cake 4  100.  26.1 

"             "     (600) 6  104.2  42.5 

Pea  bran 8  140.  22.7 

"    meal 1         88.5  26.8 

"    hulls  (59) 6  125.  37. 

"    middlings    (7) 6  135.  31. 

Peanut  cake,  whole  nut  (24) 6  111.5  62.2 

"      shelled  nut  (2480)..   6  106.6  48.7 
4  104.  39.7 


22.6 

26.3 

15.3 

18.6 

21.1 

8.9 

3.2 

.1 

11. 

18.6 

7.7 

5.9 

13.4 

2.2 

7.1 

18.7 

22.5 

15.3 

26.1 

27. 

15.3 

1.6 

4.9 

9.6 

2.5 

7.9 

25.9 

11. 

5. 

26.9 

11. 

5. 

3.1 

10.3 

30.8 

8.2 

9.9 

22.4 

8.8 

10. 

37.4 

6.5 

7.8 

49.1 

15. 

18. 

76.2 

20. 

15. 

75.6 

13.1 

15. 

394 


Mill    Products,  continued. 


"    (230). 
middlings 


(20) 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Author- 

in  parentheses) .  ity.    Water. 

Poppy  seed  cake  (190) 6       114.2 

"         "         "      4       115. 

Potato  slump 8      948. 

Rape  cake 4       113. 

"     (500) 6       100. 

Rice  bran 1       102. 

"       "     (1) 6       102. 

"    middlings 4       100. 

"    polish 1       103. 

"      (187) 6       106. 

Rye  flour 1       142. 

"     4       142. 

bran 1       I  J.">. 

"     4       125. 

6 

1 

0 

Sesame  cake  (150) 6 

"  "       4 

Soja  bean  cake  (5) 6 

Sugar  beet,  clarifying  refuse 8 

"         "      molasses  (35) 6 

4 

Sugar    beet    diffusion     cuttings, 

after  use,  fresh  (20) 6 

Sugar    beet    diffusion     cuttings, 

after  use,  pressed  (16) 6 

Sugar    beet     diffusion    cuttings, 

after  use,  soured  (35) 6 

Sugar    beet     diffusion     cuttings, 

after  use,  dried  (12) 6 

Sunflower  seed  cake  (58) 6 

II  II  >(  A 

Starch  feed,  glucose  refuse I 

Walnut  cake  (4) 6 

ii  ii  . .   4 

Wheat   flour 1 

"    4 

"       bran 1 

'■  "    coarse  (93; 6 


125. 
125.4 
125. 
98.2 
111. 
125.9 
948. 
207.5 
172. 

930. 
897.7 


Ash. 
112.1 

77.4 
5. 

57. 

79.4 
129.4 
129.4 

54.7 

90. 

92. 

16.9 

46. 

71.9 

46. 

35.2 

30. 
107.5 

93.8 

53.5 

3.3 

106.2 

82.6 

8.3 


885.2       10.9 


Nitro- 
gen. 
58.2 
51. 

1.6 
50.5 
49.6 
7.1 
7.1 
19.1 
19.7 
17.8 
16.8 
16.8 
23.2 
23.2 
23.2 
18.4 
23.2 
60. 
58.6 
66.2 
.8 
14.6 
12.8 


1.4 


1.8 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 
31.7 
31.7 

1. 

20. 

20. 

2.9 

2.9 

23.8 

26.7 

27.7 

8.5 

8.2 

22.8 

34.4 

22.8 

12.6 

12.3 

32.7 

32.7 

22. 

.2 

.5 

.5 


Pot- 
ash. 
23. 
23. 
2.2 
13. 
13. 
2.4 
2.4 
6.1 
7.1 
7.6 
6.5 
6.5 
14. 
19.4 
14. 
8.1 
9.6 
14.5 
14.5 
18. 

.3 
56.3 
58.7 

.64 


105.3 

66.1 

12.5 

2.2 

3.1 

92.4 

66.8 

55.5 

21.5 

11.7 

103. 

49.7 

59.7 

21.5 

11.7 

81. 

26.2 

2.9 

1.5 

113.7 

50.7 

49.1 

20.2 

15.3 

137. 

46.2 

55.3 

20.2 

15.3 

98.3 

12.2 

22.1 

5.7 

5.4 

120. 

11.2 

21.0 

5.6 

3.5 

117.4 

62.5 

26.7 

28.9 

16.1 

132. 

58. 

22.6 

26.9 

15.2 

Mill    Products,  concluded. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                     Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses!.                          ity.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Wheat  bran,  fine  (40) G  132.  46.  24.8 

"      middlings    1  91.8  23.  2(5.3 

"              "           (24) 6  12G.  27.  22.8 

XII.  Roots  and  Tubers—            Lbs,  in  i.ooo. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem 4  800.  9.8  3.2 

"                   ••           (33) G  800.  11.2  2.G 

Canaigre 8  667.  13.7  6.2 

Beet,   common 4  880.  9.1  1.8 

"        (318) G  880.  10.7  2. 

"       red   1  877.3  11.3  2.4 

"      yellow  fodder 1  906.  9.5  1 .9 

Carrot 1  897.9  9.2  1.5 

"       4  850.  8.2  2.2 

"      (63) 6  870.  10.  2. 

Chicory 4  800.  G.7  2.5 

Kohlriihe    (Brassica  napus   e.sar- 

lenta) 4  870.  7.5  2.1 

Kohlrilbe   Brassica   napus    exar- 

hiitn)  (110) 6  878.  9.2  2.4 

Mangel-wurzel 1  872.9  12.2  1.9 

Parsnip   (3) 6  832.  10.  1.8 

1  803.4  10.3  2.2 

4  793.  10.  5.4 

Potato 1  797.5  9.9  2. 1 

•'      4  750.  '.1.5  :t.4 

•'     with  25%  dry  matter  (197).  G  750.  11.  3.4 

"    21%     "         "        (53)..  6  790.  9..t  3.1 

"    26%     "         "        (107).   6  740.  11.2  3.3 

"    32%     "         "        (13)..   G  680.  11.  4. 

Rutabagas 1  891.3  10. G  1.9 

Succory 8  800.  6.7  2.5 

Sugar  beet 1  869.5  10.4  2.2 

"         "     4  815.  7.1  l.G 

"     (68) 6  820.  8.1  2.1 

•'         •'    upper  part  of  root 4  840.  9.0  2. 

Turnips 1  894.it  10.1  1.8 

4  920.  6.4  1.8 

(52) 6  907  8  b.  1  U 


39; 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot. 
ash. 

26. 

13.9 

9.5 

6.3 

13.5 

7.4 

1.4 

4.7 

1.4 

4.7 

1.8 

5.G 

.8 

4.8 

.8 

4.8 

.9 

4.4 

.9 

4.6 

.9 

5.1 

1.1 

3. 

.9 

2.G 

.8 

2.G 

1.1 


1. 

3.S 

.9 

3.8 

o 

4.4 

1.9 

G.2 

1.9 

5.4 

,7 

2.9 

l.G 

5.8 

l.G 

5.7 

1.3 

4.8 

1.7 

5.9 

1.2 

4.9 

.8 

2.6 

1. 

4.8 

.9 

3.8 

.8 

3.7 

1.2 

2.8 

1. 

:i.9 

.8 

2.9 

9 

3.4 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot 

ash. 

1.6 

7. 

1.5 

6.3 

2.1 

9.1 

2.7 

11.9 

2.« 

9.3 

3.4 

12.8 

.'J96  Heeds    and    Seed -like    Fruits. 

XIII.  Seeds  and  Seed-like  Fruits—  Lb*,  in  i.ooo. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                      Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.    Ash.  gen. 

Acorns,  unshelled,  fresh  (12) 6  500.  11.7  5.4 

"                "               "       4  553.  9.8  4. 

Acorns,  unshelled,  partially  dried 

(12) 6  350.  15.3  6.9 

Acorns,  unshelled,  dried  (12) 6  150.  20.  9. 

"        shelled,  fresh  (8) 6  350.  19.5  7.9 

"              «'        dried  (8) 6  150.  25.5  10.4 

Barley   (10) 1  109.  24.  19.8 

1  149.  17.6        8.2         5.4 

2  138.  22.  17.9 

(1128) 6  143.  24.8  15.1 

spring 4  143.  22.3  16. 

winter 4  145.  17.  16! 

Bean,  field 4  145.  31.  40.8 

"         "     2  141.  31.  40.2 

"         "    (87) 6  143.  31.8  40.7 

"       garden 4  150.  27.4  39. 

"             ".    (26) 6  140.  36.  36.4 

"       soja  (8) 1  108.  47.  54.4 

"      1  183.3  49.9  53. 

"      4  100.  28.3  53.4 

"     yellow  (23) 6  100.  51.3  52.9 

"         "      brown    (11) 6  100.  48.5  52.2 

"     black   (5) 6  112.  47.3  54.4 

"        "     mixed  (58) 6  100.  48.  55.1 

Beech,     European     (Fagus     syl- 

vatica) 4  150.  27.  23.5         6.3         8.3 

Beech,     European     (Fagus     syl- 

vatica)  (3) 6  111.  41.8  21.3 

Beet,  mangel  (Beta  vulgaris) 4  140.  48.8 

"           "               **          "           (6).  6  139.  69.4  19.1 

Buckwheat  (8) 1  126.  20.  16. 

"           1  141.  14.4 

4  140.  11.8  14.4 

2  131.  18.  16.2 

(20) 6  141.  27.7  18.1 

Caraway  (Carum  Carui) 4  130.  46.4 

Carrot  (Daucus  Carota) 4  120.  74.8 


7.9 

4.8 

7.8 

4.7 

5.6 

2.8 

12.1 

12.9 

12. 

12.9 

9.7 

12.1 

9.8 

12.2 

18.7 

19.9 

10.4 

12.6 

10.4 

12.6 

10.4 

12.6 

10.2 

12.4 

10.4 

12.6 

4.7 

5.2 

7.6 

9.1 

7.6 

9. 

4.4 

2.1 

5.7 

2.7 

6.9 

3. 

11.3 

12.2 

11.8 

14.3 

6.9 

2.7 

7.1 

16.5 

6.5 

30.5 

14.5 

13.5 

11.6 

12.3 

8.8 

1.7 

4.3 

7.6 

14.5 

36.5 

10.5 

10.9 

10.1 

19.6 

38.3 

20.3 

3.5 

19. 

7. 

6.9 

26.1 

16.9 

9.4 

26.1 

29.2 

17.5 

9.7 

Seeds,  etc.,  continued.  397 

Sample                                                                               Phos- 
(Ko.  of  analyses                      Author-                            Nltro-    phorie      Pot- 
in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash.      gen         acid.       a»h. 

Castor  pomace 7.04                   6.         1.05        .34 

Chestnut,  horse,  common  (JSseu- 
lus      Ilippocastanum)     dried 

and  shelled  (10) 6  105.  23.3       11.5         4.7       12.5 

Chestnut,    horse    (^Escitlus    Hip- 

pocastanum)   fresh 4  493.  12. 

Chicory  (Cichorium  Intybus) 4  130.  54.6 

Clover,  red 4  150.  38.3 

"        white 4  150.  33.8 

Cocoa-nut 4  466.  9.7 

Coriander  (Coriandrum    sativum)  4  135.  41.2 

Cotton 8  77.  33.8 

Fennel  (Fan iculum  officinale) .. .  4  134.  61.4 

Flax,  false  (Camelina  sativa)  (5)  6  77.  74.4 

Grape 8  110.  22.7 

Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa) 4  122.  46.3 

"               "         2  122.  45. 

(5) 6  89.  42.4 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  (Lens 

esculenta) 2  125.  28.         38. 1" 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  {Lena 

esculenta)  (14) 6  140.  29.8 

Linseed  (Linum  usitatissimum). .  4  118.  32.6 

...  2  118.  34. 

(50)  6  92.  43. 

Lupine  (Lupinus  Inteus)  yellow. .   2  128.  35. 

"                ••             "              "  (41)  6  140.  38.1 

(L.  angustitolius)  blue...  2  150.  32. 

"    (13)  6  140.  29. 

(L.  albus)  white  (10) 6  140.  30.4 

"       (L.  hirsutus)  (5) 6  140.  27.3 

4  130.  37. 

minus  alkaloid 6  325.  11. 

Madia  sativa  (4) 6  75.  42.7 

"       5  84.  47. 

Maine  (Indian  corn),  dent  (86;. . .   1  106.  15. 

"     (149)...  6  130.  14.8 

"      flint  (68)....    1  113.  14. 

(80)....   6  130.  14. 

'•      sweet  (26)...    1  88.  19. 

"               (27)...  6  130.  18.2 


40.7 

7.7 

8.6 

32.8 

13.5 

10. 

34.7 

36.1 

13.9 

10.3 

56.6 

61.2 

14.1 

11.3 

44.8 

47.2 

13.8 

11.2 

47.3 

13.8 

11.2 

40.8 

12.9 

10.3 

56.6 

14.2 

11.4 

50.7 

5.1 

4.1 

31. 

17.6 

9.3 

33. 

16.4 

16. 

5.7 

3.7 

16.8 

16.4 

5.7 

3.7 

18.6 

18.4 

5.7 

3.7 

12.8 

16.8 

18.2 

7. 

4. 

16. 

5.7 

3.7 

17. 

15.8 

5.7 

3.7 

20.4 

8.5 

3.6 

20.3 

6.5 

3.3 

398  Seeds,  etc.,  continued. 

Sample                                                                               Phos- 
(No.  of  analyses                      Author-                           Nitro-    phoric      Pot- 
in  parentheses),                        ity  Water  Ash.      gen.       acid.       ash. 

Maize  (Indian  corn) ,  pop  (4; 1  107.  15.        17.9 

Maize    (Indian   corn),   dent,  field 

cured   (17) 1  342.          9.         10. 

Maize    (Indian   corn),    flint,   field 

cured  (48) 1  271.  13. 

Maize  (208) 1  109.  15. 

1  108.8  15.3 

"         4  144.  12.4 

5  127.  17. 

(300) 6  130.  13. 

Millet,   common   (Panicum   mili- 

aceum) 1  126.8 

Millet,   common   (Panicum   mill- 

aceum) 4  140.  29.5 

Millet,    common   (Panicum   mili- 

aceum) 2  135.  30.        20.3 

Millet,    common    (Panicum   mili- 

aceum)  (6) 6  125.  38.2 

Millet,  Japanese  (Setaria  Italica 

vara.) 1  136.8 

Millet  (Setaria  Italica) 2  124.  33. 

Mustard 4  130.  36.5 

Mustard,  black  (Brassica  nigra) 

(11) 6  63.  50.2 

Mustard,  white  (B.  alba)  (6) 6  72.  43.6 

Oats  (30) 1  110.  30. 

"     1  181.7  29.8 

"     4  143.  26.7 

"     2  137.  27. 

"     (560) 6  133.  31. 

"    hulled  (180) 6  120.  20.3 

Pea  (Lathy rut  sativus)  (4) 6  140.  27.8 

"             "                 "           2  116.  29. 

Peas  4  143.  23.4 

"      2  132.  24. 

"      (118)   6  140.  28.1 

"     cow  (5) 1  148.  32. 

Poppy,    opium    (Papaver  somnif- 

erum) 4  147.  51.5       28.         16.2 


17. 

5.9 

3.4 

17.3 

6.9 

3.8 

16. 

14.6 

5.9 

44.1 

15.7 

6.4 

43.5 

15.6 

6.3 

18.8 

20.6 

8.2 

6.2 

17.6 

6.8 

4.8 

19.2 

16.5 

6.9 

4.8 

21.6 

8.8 

5.1 

38. 

4.7 

9.7 

40. 

35.8 

8.4 

10.1 

35.8 

36. 

8.4 

10.1 

33.3 

Seeds,  etc.,  continued.  399 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses                     Author- 
in  parentheses),                         ity.  Water.  Ash. 
Poppy,    opium  (Papaver  somnif- 

ertim)   (9) 6  81.  72.3 

Peanut  (Arachis  hypogcea)  (9)...  6  70.  28. .'5 

"              "                "             4  63.  32. 

Rape      (Brassica      Napus     oleif- 

era   DC.) 4  118.  39.2 

Rape      (Brassica      Napus    oleif- 

e, •«  DC.)  (22) 0  73.  42.1 

Rape      (Brassica      Rapa      oleif- 

era  DC.)   (13) G  78.  38.1 

Rape       (Brassica     JRapa      oleif- 

era  DC.)  short  season  var 4  120.  34.9 

Rape     (Raphanus    satirns   oleif  - 

erus)    (2) G  77.  3.".. 7 

Rice  (10) 1  124.  4. 

"       1  12G.  8.2 

"       2  132.  7. 

"      (41) 6  126.  8.2 

"      not  hulled 2  85.  4. 

Rutabaga 8  140.  48.8 

Rye  (G) 1  1 1G.  19. 

"     ]  149. 

"      2  143.  18. 

"     (257) G  134.  19.8 

"     spring 4  143.  18. 

"     winter 4  143.  17.9 

Sainfoin,    esparsette  (Onobryctiis 

sativa) 4  1G0.  38.4 

Serradella  (Ornithopus  tativua)..  4  120.  28.4 

"...   2  87.  34. 

««                    "                "         (7)  G  140.  31. 

Sesame  ( Se sam um  orientate)  (12)  G  55.  G4.7 

Sorghum  (10) 1  128.  21. 

"          1  140. 

4  140.  16. 

saccharatum  (38) G  152.  17.1 

Tatarieum   (G) G  111.  24.2 

vulgare(12) G  114. G  19.5 

"         saccharatum   Pers 4  140.  23.4 

Spelt 2  121.  30.         17.6 


Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

31.2 

17.5 

7.5 

47.5 

10. 

8. 

45.1 

12.4 

12.7 

31.2 

16.6 

9.G 

31.7 

17.4 

10.1 

32.8 

15.7 

9.2 

3G.8 

14.9 

7.7 

34. 

14.6 

9.2 

11.8 

10.8 

1.8 

.9 

13.8 

10.8 

1.8 

.9 

8. 

7.6 

9.1 

16.9 

17.6 

8.2 

5.4 

18.2 

18.3 

8.6 

5.8 

9.2 

i\.-2 

17.6 

8.5 

5.8 

9.2 

11. 

34.9 

7.8 

8.2 

34.3 

7.7 

8. 

32.5 

17. 

8. 

14.6 

14.8 

8.1 

4.2 

8.1 

3.3 

14.8 

8.1 

3.2 

15.3 

6. 

3.G 

14.3 

8.4 

3.4 

5.8 

3.5 

400  Seeds,  etc.,  concluded. 

Sample 

(No.  of  analyses                      Author-  Nitro- 

in  parentheses) .                         lty.  Water.  Ash.  gen. 

Spelt,  with  husk 4  148.  36.6  16.6 

"        "        "    (11) 6  137.  23.4  17.4 

"      withouthusk 4  143.  14.4  22. 

"             "          "     (6) 6  139.  18.4  22.2 

Spurry  (Spergula   arvensis) 2  103.  34.  22.4 

"                  "                "         (3)..  6  103.  34.  22.4 

Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus)  (5)  C  75.  34.4  22.8 

Turnips 8  125.  34.9  34. 

Veteh,    kidney  (Anthyllis   vulne- 

raria) 4  94.  36.8 

Vetch,  or  tare  (  Vicia  sativa) 4  143.  26.6  44. 

•'       "     "           "           "        2  136.  27.  44. 

"       "     "           "           "        (13).  6  133.  32.3  40.6 
Vetch,    Russian,  or   hairy  ( Vicia 

villosa)   (4) C  160.  30.2  37. 

Walnut,  kernel 4  450.  11.7 

Wheat  (1358) 6  134.  17.1  19.3 

"       2  143.  17.  21.1 

"      hard-glassy  (239) C  134.  17.9  20.2 

"       soft(146) G  134.  17.8  18.2 

"       spring  (13) 1  104.  19.  20. 

"            "       1  143.5  15.7  23.6 

4  143.  18.3  20.5 

"       (132) 6  134.  19.4  21.2 

"      winter  (262) 1  105.  18.  18.8 

"            "       1  147.5  23.6 

"       4  144.  16.8  20.8 

«       (788) 6  134.  18.2  18.7 

XIV.  Straw—  u».  m  i.ow. 

Barley  1  114.4  53.  13.1 

"        4  143.  45.9  6.4 

"        2  143.  44.  5.4 

"        (101) 6  142.  57.4  5.5 

"       spring 5  143.  41.  5.6 

"        winter 5  143.  55.  5.3 

Bean,  fleld 4  160.  44.9  16.3 

"         "     2  175.  58.  15.8 

"         "     (9) 6  184.  54.3  13. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

7.6 

5.7 

7.6 

5.7 

6.5 

4.3 

6.5 

4.3 

7.2 

3.6 

12.2 

5.6 

14. 

7.6 

13.6 

12.1 

9.9 

8. 

9.9 


3. 
1.9 


8.1 


9.6 

8.4 

5.1 

3.6 

8.7 

5.5 

8.7 

5.5 

8.7 

5.5 

;. 

3.9 

9. 

5.6 

9.1 

5.6 

8.9 

6.1 

7.9 

5.2 

8. 

5.3 

20.9 

10.7 


10.6 


19.4 


2.7      18. 


Nitro- 

Phos- 
phoric 

Pot- 

gen. 

acid. 

ash. 

16.3 

3.9 

12.8 

13.9 

3.9 

13. 

11.2 

17..") 

4. 

13.2 

13.1 

3.1 

5. 

11.8 

2.9 

4.8 

10.7 

14.7 

14.7 

4.2 

12.6 

titrate,  continued.  401 

Sample 
(No.  of  analyses  Aothor- 

in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash. 

Bean,  field 5  160.  46. 

"       garden 4  160.  40.2 

"            "      (6) 6  150.  75. 

5  150.  62. 

soja 1  130. 

"   4  140.  32.7 

"    2  112.  12.4 

•'   (10)  6  160.  101.8 

••    5  150.  102. 

Clover,  grown  for  seed 2  155.  58. 

'      5  160.  56. 

red 6  155.  58. 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  (Lens 

eseulenta) 2  150.  66.        22.4 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  (Lens 

eseulenta)  (2) 6  150.  68.4      22.2        2.7        6.3 

Lentil,  common,  of  Europe  (Lens 

eseulenta ) 5  160.  65. 

Lupine  (Luphnts'lutens) 4  160.  42.6 

2  126.  38. 

"         (14) 6  150.  39.5 

5  160.  41. 

Oats   (12) 1  92.  51. 

•'      1  90.9  47.6 

•'      4  143.  61. i; 

••      2  143.  44. 

•'     (55) 6  145.  57. 

"      5  143.  40. 

Pea 4  160.  43.1 

"    2  143.  49. 

•   (53) «  136.  66. 

•'   5  160.  45. 

Poppy,   opium    (Papa  rer  tomnif  - 

erum)  4  160.  4H.6 

l'oppy,    opium    (Pa purer  tomnif- 

erum)  (2i 6  160.  .*;.:: 

Poppv,    opium  (Papaver    somnif- 

e'rxtm) '..5  148.  94.          10.7 

Rape  (Brassiea  Napus  oleifera).  4  160.  41.3         :<.{>         2.5       11.3 

"               "             "          ..2  160.  53.           5.6 

AA 


22.4 

9.4 

2.5 

17.7 

8.8 

10.  ti 

>>  - 

17.9 

9.4 

6.4 

6.2 

2. 

12.4 

5.6 

2.8 

16.3 

6.4 

4.6 

2.8 

17.7 

6.4 

10.4 

3.5 

9.9 

11.7 

14.3 

3.5 

10.2 

10.4 

1.6 

18.4 

'...7 

l.fi 

lvl 

402  Straw,  concluded. 


Sample  Phos- 
(No.  of  analyses                      Author-  Nitro-    phoric     Pot- 
in  parentheses).                         ity.  Water.  Ash.  gen.        acid.       ash. 
Rape  (Brassica  Napus  oleifera)  (2)  6  160.  37.8  4.           2.5       II. 2 
"              "              "              "         ..  5  160.  41.  5.6 

Rice  (7) 6  132.  103.3  8.8        2.6        5.3 

"     5  156.  153.  9.1 

Rye  (7) 1         71.  32.  4.8 

1         76.1  32.5  4.6        2.8         7.9 

2  143.  41.  4.8 

(87) 6  136.  41.5  4.9        2.5        8.6 

spring 4  143.  46.7  5.6         2.8       11.7 

winter 4  143.  38.2  4.           2.5         8.6 

"       7  143.  41.  4.8 

Spelt 2  143.  52.  3.7 

"      (2) 6  150.  58.1  4.3         2.5         5.2 

'•      winter 4  143.  50.1  4.           2.6        5.2 


143.         50.  4. 


Vetch,  Russian    or   hairy    ( Vic'm 

villosa)  (3; 6       150.         41.8       10.9         2.7         6.3 

Vetch,  Russian   or    hairy    ( X'hia 

villosa) 5 

Vetch  (  Vicla  sativa ) 4 


"       (7) 6 

"  "        5 

Wheat,  winter 4 


spring 4 

"      (7) 1 

"      1 


(80) 6 


XV.  Vegetables- 
Artichoke 4 

Asparagus 1 

"         4 

Beans,  Adzuki 1 

"       Lima 1 

"       string 1 

Beets,  red 1 


113. 

48. 

9.9 

160. 

44.1 

12. 

°.7 

6.3 

143. 

60. 

11.2 

133. 

52.9 

14.4 

2.7 

6.5 

160. 

45. 

12. 

143. 

46. 

4.8 

2.2 

6.3 

143. 

46. 

4.8 

143. 

38.1 

5.6 

2, 

11. 

96. 

42. 

5.4 

125.6 

38.1 

5.9 

1.2 

5.1 

143. 

30. 

5. 

136. 

53. 
Lbs. 

6. 
in  1,000. 

2.2 

6.3 

811. 

10.1 

3.9 

2.4 

039.6 

6.7 

2.9 

.8 

2.9 

933. 

5. 

3.2 

.9 

1.2 

158.6 

35.3 

32.9 

9.5 

15.1 

684.6 

16.9 

872.3 

7.6 

884.7 

10.4 

2.4 

.9 

4.4 

Vegetables,  concluded. 


403 


Sample 
(No.  of  analyses 
in  parentheses) . 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 


Celery 

Chives 

Chorogi  tuber 

Corn,  sweet,  kernels. 
Cucumber 


Garlic,  tuber. 

"       leaves. 
Horse-radish . . 


Lettuce,  Roman 

"        whole  plant . 


Kohl-rabi 


Mushroom . 
Onion 


Parsnip. . 

Peas 

Pumpkin 


Radish 

Rhubarb,  stems  ami  loaves. 
Spinach 


Sweet  potato. 


thor- 

ty.    Water. 

Ash. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 

Pot- 
ash. 

1       905.2 

14. 

3.8 

1.1 

4.3 

1       885.9 

10.2 

1.6 

.9 

5.1 

1       908.2 

8.1 

1.3 

1.6 

3.6 

4       904. 

8. 

4. 

1.6 

3.6 

4       841. 

17.6 

2.4 

2.2 

7.6 

4       820. 

9.9 

6.2 

1.5 

3.3 

1       789. 

10.9 

4.1 

1.9 

6.4 

1       821.4 

5.6 

4.6 

7 

2.4 

1       959.9 

4.6 

1.6 

1.2 

2.4 

4       956. 

5.8 

1.6 

1  2 

2.4 

4       876. 

8.4 

4.5 

1.4 

2.6 

4       908. 

7.6 

3.4 

.6 

3.1 

1       766.8 

18.7 

3.6 

_7 

11.6 

4       767. 

19.7 

4.3 

2, 

7.7 

4       925. 

9.8 

o# 

1.1 

2.5 

1       936.8 

16.1 

2.3 

,7 

3.7 

4       94.!. 

10.3 

0  •) 

1. 

3.9 

4       940. 

8.1 

,7 

3.7 

1       910.8 

12.7 

4.8 

o  7 

4.3 

4       850. 

12.3 

4.8 

2.7 

4.3 

4       888. 

10. 

4.7 

3.4 

5.1 

1       875.5 

5.7 

1.4 

.4 

1. 

4       860. 

7.4 

2.7 

1.3 

2.5 

I       80.'t.4 

10.3 

2.2 

1.9 

6.2 

1       126.2 

31.1 

35.8 

8.4 

10.1 

1       922.7 

6.3 

1.1 

1.6 

.9 

4       900. 

4.4 

1.1 

1.6 

.9 

4      933. 

4.9 

1.9 

.5 

1.6 

1       916.7 

17.2 

1.3 

2 

3.6 

1       924.2 

19.4 

4.9 

1.6 

2.7 

4       903. 

16. 

4.9 

1.6 

•>  7 

1       729.6 

9.5 

2.3 

1. 

5. 

4       758. 

7.4 

2.4 

.8 

3.7 

1        712.6 

10. 

2.4 

.8 

3.7 

1       '.136.4 

4.7 

1.6 

.5 

2  7 

1       904.6 

8. 

1.8 

1. 

3.9 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Note.  — By  moving  decimal  points   one   place    to    the   left,   the   reader    may 
make  the  figures  express  percentages. 


APPENDIX  B. 

NOTES    TO    THE    SECOND   EDITION. 

Since  Chapter  IV.  was  written,  great  interest  has  been 
shown  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet.  Success  in  this 
branch  of  agriculture  is  so  dependent  upon  a  continuous  and 
full  supply  of  moisture,  that  the  subject  of  providing  and  con- 
serving it  takes  on  a  new  and  added  interest. 

All  writers  on  sugar  beet  culture  recommend  deep  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  for  this  crop,  not  alone  deep  ordinary  plowing, 
but  subsoiling;  that  is,  loosening  the  soil  by  both  operations 
to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  more  inches.  The  reason  usually 
given  for  this  deep  tillage  is,  that  the  beet  tends  to  grow  out 
of  the  ground  if  the  tap-root  reaches  a  hard  subsoil  before  the 
beet  has  extended  its  tap-root  full  length.  All  this  is  true,  and 
it  is  also  a  fact  that  that  part  of  the  beet  which  is  exposed  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or,  that  above  ground,  has  not  only 
a  less  per  cent  of  sugar  than  the  part  underground,  but  also 
contains  a  greater  per  cent  of  impurities  which  arrest  t he  crys- 
tallization of  what  sugar  may  be  present  in  the  exposed  crowns; 
therefore  the  land  designed  for  beets  should  be  broken  up  and 
loosened  by  the  action  of  the  subsoiler,  which  should  imme- 
diately follow  the  ordinary  plow.  But  it  may  easily  happen 
that  the  subsoiling  may  do  positive  injury  to  the  succeeding 
crop.  While  deep  preparatory  tillage  may,  and  usually  does, 
allow  the  root  to  descend  easily,  subsoiling,  if  not  performed 
at  the  proper  time,  or  if  it  is  not  followed  by  suitable  surface 
tillage,  often  arrests  capillary  action  by  leaving  the  subsurface 
soil, —  or  that  which  has  been  loosened  by  the  subsoiler. —  so 
porous  and  non-compacted  as  to  arrest  energetic  capillary 
action.     The  fact  is,   that  deep   and  thorough  preparation  of    the 

(405) 


406  Appendix   B. 

land  sets  free  or  makes  available  plant-food,  and  may  also  in- 
crease the  moisture -storing  capacity  of  the  soil.  In  some  cases, 
subsoiling  may  dimininish  the  capacity  of  the  subsurface  soil 
to  hold  moisture  or  to  lift  it  to  the  surface  soil,  as  in  case  of  a 
subsoil  already  porous  enough  or  too  porous. 

If,  then,  the  subsoil  needs  to  be  loosened  for  the  purpose 
of  liberating  plant-food  and  for  giving  the  root  easy  passage 
downward,  as  it  does  in  most  cases,  unusual  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  subsurface  soil  so  compacted  before  the  roots 
reach  it  that  it  will  be  fitted  in  the  highest  degree  both  for 
retaining  moisture  and  for  lifting  it  towards  the  surface.  If  the 
subsoiling  is  done  in  the  early  fall,  the  winter  rains  and  frosts 
will  fit  this  subsurface  soil  for  highest  efficiency.  If  the  sub- 
soiling  is  deferred  until  spring,  it  will  require  some  judgment 
to  discover  just  how  much  tramping  of  the  teams  and  pressure 
of  the  implements  will  be  necessary  to  suitably  compact  the 
soil  loosened  by  the  subsoiler. 

The  sugar  beet  requires  a  fairly  full  and  continuous  supply 
of  moisture  throughout  the  entire  growing  season,  for  if  the  beet 
suffers  seriously  from  lack  of  moisture  in  the  mid-career  of  its 
growth,  it  will  tend  to  ripen,  and  many  of  the  leaves  will  fall 
off.  Later,  when  the  September  rains  occur,  it  may  make  a 
second  growth,  and  beets  which  contained  from  12  to  15  per 
cent  of  sugar  at  the  close  of  August  may  be  so  far  depleted  of 
their  sugar  content  by  this  second  growth  as  to  contain  but 
8  to  10  per  cent  by  the  first  day  of  October.  It  will  be 
seen  how  necessary  it  is  to  keep  the  beets  fully  and  continu- 
ously supplied  with  moisture  until  the  normal  season  of  ripen- 
ing approaches.  It  is  not  enough  to  simply  deepen  the  soil  and 
increase  its  moisture -holding  capacity:  the  moisture  should,  so 
far  as  possible,  be  conserved.  The  tramping  and  compacting 
of  the  surface  soil  by  the  workmen,  when  weeding  and  thinning, 
restores  the  capillarity  of  the  surface  soil,  and  there  is  great 
loss  of  moisture  unless  the  earth-mulch  is  speedily  restored  by 
surface  tillage.  Then,  too,  neglect  to  preserve  the  earth-mulch 
until  late  in  the  season  may  result  in  premature  ripening  and  a 
second  growth,  which  is  so  destructive  to  the  quality  of  the  beet. 


Tillage   of  Sugar   Beets.  407 

What  has  been  said  as  to  losses  which  may  occur  in  beet 
culture  by  neglect  to  conserve  moisture  in  a  dry  time,  is  meas- 
urably true  when  applied  to  other  inter-tilled  crops.  Mani- 
festly, plants  cannot  arrive  at  their  maximum  development  if, 
for  considerable  periods  of  time,  they  suffer  for  a  full  supply 
of  moisture,  though  the  land  may  have  been  prepared  in  the 
best  manner,  good  seed  used,  and  the  soil  fully  supplied  with 
available  plant- food.  There  is  no  sufficient  vehicle  to  carry  the 
nutriment  into  the  plant.  Therefore,  too  much  care  cannot  be 
taken  to  conserve  moisture  in  our  erratic  climate. 

The  following  brief  extracts  give  in  clear  language  the 
science  of  capillary  attraction  as  applied  to  soil  moisture:* 

"After  gravity  has  removed  the  surplus  of  free  water  be- 
yond the  zone  of  plant  roots,  then  what  remains  is  largely 
within  the  control  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  The  product  of  the 
season  on  a  fertile  soil  is  largely  the  measure  of  his  use  of  this 
water  supply  and  the  per  cent  he  can  make  available  to  the 
growing  crop But  why  should  water  in  a  half -satu- 
rated soil  rise  to  the  surface  and  be  thus  exposed  to  loss  by 
evaporation?  If  gravity  cannot  overcome  the  adhesive  force  of 
the  exposed  soil-grain  surfaces  and  carry  it  down,  what  power 
lifts  it  up?  If  water  will  not  descend  from  a  half -saturated  soil 
into  dry  soil  beneath,  what  causes  it  to  ascend?  When  the  soil 
is  fully  saturated,  gravity  controls  and  the  movement  of  water 
is  downward  only.  Gravity  is  the  important  factor  in  remov- 
ing the  free  water  in  a  pervious  soil.  When  the  moisture  con- 
tent is  reduced  to  one-fourth  saturation,  the  movement  of  water 
practically  ceases  between  these  two  points,  and  especially  be- 
tween half  and  quarter  saturation,  the  movement  may  he  in 
any  direction,  surface  tension  being  the  motive  power.  There 
are  two  important  factors  in  the  movement  of  soil  water  after 
drainage  has  ceased.  One,  the  thickness  of  the  water  films 
spread  over  the  soil-grains.  The  other,  their  continuity.  The 
exposed  surfaces  in  a  cubic  foot  of  clay  loam  soil  should,  if 
laid  out   flat,  cover  nearly   an  acre  of    ground.     A    fine    division 

*H.  R.  Hilton  in  Prairie  Farmer.  January  29,  1808. 


408  Appendix   B. 

and  uniform  arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  increase  the 
amount  of  surface,  and  hence  the  quantity  of  water  each  foot 
will  retain.  If  a  broad  rubber  band  is  slipped  over  a  marble 
and  pulled  with  a  gentle  pressure,  the  marble  will  represent 
the  soil-grain  and  the  rubber  band  the  film  of  moisture  ad- 
hering to  it.  Stretch  the  rubber  band  to  its  fullest  limit,  its 
thickness  is  diminished,  its  tension  increased ;  as  the  pull  on  the 
rubber  band  is  slackened  it  becomes  thicker,  and  is  finally  re- 
stored to  its  normal  condition.  When  the  rubber  band  is 
thickest  it  has  the  least  grip  on  the  marble;  as  it  becomes 
thinner  by  stretching,  its  tension  or  grip  on  the  marble  is  in- 
creased. In  a  similar  way  the  water  adheres  to  the  soil -grains 
with  least  force  when  the  film  is  thickest  and  the  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  air  is  least,  and  with  greatest  force  when  the  film 
is  thinnest  and  the  surface  exposed  to  the  air  is  greatest.  When 
the  film  is  thinnest  its  strain  or  tension  is  greatest,  and  it  is  this 
strain  or  force  that  moves  the  water  from  the  point  in  the  soil 
where  the  films  are  thickest  to  the  point  in  the  soil  where 
they  are  thinnest  till  the  differences  are  adjusted.  This 
movement  has  a  limitation  not  yet  clearly  determined,  but  the 
thick  films  are  more  elastic  than  the  thin  ones,  and  will  move 
more  readily— that  is  to  say — the  movement  from  soil  25  per 
cent  moist  into  adjoining  soil  20  per  cent  moist  will  be 
more  free  and  rapid  than  when  the  differences  are  20  and 
15  per  cent.  The  freedom  of  movement  is  probably  in  pro- 
portion to  the  difference  in  moisture  content  down  to  the  point 
where  the  film  is  most  attenuated,  but  still  unbroken.  When 
the  film  breaks,  movement  ceases.  It  is  like  a  broken  electric 
current." 

Plant-food  used  by  the  sugar  beet  crop. — The  following  fig- 
ures relative  to  the  plant -food  used  by  the  beet  crop  are  based 
upon  work  done  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  and  reported 
in  Bulletin  No.  143,  pp.  570  572: 

Nitrogen,  Rot  ash,  Phosphoric  Water, 
*                «              acid, «  « 

'rriiiiiii.MllK-.-ts 2X  :iti  .11  79.6 

Sugar  beet  crowns 4:i  .-».*>  .12  79.7 

Sugar  beet  leaves 64  1.09  .11  77.7 


Superphosphates.  409 

The  proportion  of  crowns  and  leaves  will,  of  course,  vary  con- 
siderably with  variety,  soil,  tillage  and  maturity.  The  results 
obtained  from  an  examination  of  quite  a  large  number  of  whole 
plants  indicate  that  on  an  average  there  are  57  per  cent  of 
trimmed  beets,  17  per  cent  of  crowns,  and  26  per  cent  of  leaves: 
or  to  produce  one  ton  of  trimmed  beets  ready  for  shipment  to 
the  factory,  there  would  also  be  grown  596  pounds  of  crowns  and 
912  pounds  of  leaves. 

The  plant-food  used  in  the  production  of  one  ton  of  market- 
able sugar  beets  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Nitrogen,  Potash.  Phosphoric  Water, 

lbs.  lbs.  acid,  lbs.        lbs. 

One  ton  trimmed  beets 5.60  7.20  2.20        1,592 

591  pounds  of  crowns 2.56  2.68  .72          475 

912  pounds  of  leaves 5.84  9.94  1.              708 

Total  plant-food  used  in  producing 

one  ton  of  trimmed  beets 14.  19.82  3.92 

A  crop  of  12  tons  per  acre  will  use.. 168.  237.84  47  04 

It  is  usual,  however,  to  leave  the  crowns  and  leaves  on  the 
land,  where  they  quickly  decay  and  give  up  their  fertilizing  con- 
stituents to  succeeding  crops.  The  amount  of  fertility  removed 
from  an  acre  of  land  by  taking  away  only  the  twelve  tons  of 
trimmed  beets  would  be  :  Nitrogen  67.2,  potash  86.4,  and  phos- 
phoric acid  26.4  pounds. 

The  following  table  gives  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  one 
ton  of  beet  pulp,  beet  molasses  and  lime-cake: 

Nitrogen.  Potash,  Phosphoric  Water, 

lbs.  It's.  acid,  lbs.  lbs. 
One  ton  extracted  corsittas  or  beet 

pulp 1.82  1.72  .32  1.828 

One  ton  beet  molasses 21.40  65.20  .34  832 

One  ton  of  lime-cake  from  the  puri- 
fying Units 2.48  3.05  8.47  871 

Note  to  the  Discussion  of  Stperphosphates, 

Pages   298-302. 

The  term  "superphosphates"  is    somewhat    misleading    when 

we   come  to   consider  the   nature   of   the   substances   commonly 

known  as  "double    phosphates."     A  better  method    of    naming  is 

mentioned     by    Wiley*:    that    the     term    "acid     phosphate"   be 

•Agricultural  Analysis  ii.  150. 


410  Appendix   B. 

applied  to  the  product  of  the  action  of  sulfuric  acid  on  trical- 
cium  phosphate,  and  "superphosphate"  when  the  acting  acid 
is  phosphoric  acid.  In  either  case  the  same  compounds  of 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid  may  be  formed,  but  when  phosphoric 
acid  is  the  active  agent  there  is  no  gypsum  produced.  So  that 
the  true  "superphosphate"  may  differ  from  the  ordinary  "acid 
phosphate"  only  in  the  absence  of  gypsum.  It  may,  in  conse- 
quence, carry  as  high  as  three  times  as  much  available  phos- 
phoric acid  as  the  ordinary  acid  phosphate. 

The  phosphoric  acid  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  superphosphates  is  obtained  from  tricalcium  phosphate  by 
the  action  of  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  reaction  may  be 
represented  by  the  equation: 

CaOl  HaS04    HaO)  CaS04 

CaO  ^P20s+H3S04=H20  \  P2Os+CaS04 
CaOJ  H2S04    H20j  CaS04 

Here,   all   the    calcium    of   the   tricalcium    phosphate    unites 

with  the  sulfuric  acid  to  form  gypsum,  and  the  phosphoric  acid, 

P205,  is  united   to   three   parts   of   water,  HaO.     This  compound 

/  H«0 )         \ 
with    water    1  HaO  f  P2O5  I     is    the    true    phosphoric    acid    of    the 

chemist,  while  the  substance  designated  by  P20s  is  the  phosphoric 
acid  of  the  agriculturist.  The  phosphoric  acid  made  in  this 
way  can  be  separated  from  the  gypsum  by  distillation  and  used 
to  act  on  more  tricalcium  phosphate. 

CaOl  HaO)  CaO)  HaO) 

CaO  ^P30«+Ha0  ^P*Os=HaO  \  P205-|-CaO  \  P2Os 
CaO  J  H2OJ  HaOj  CaO  J 

Some  of  the  calcium  of  the  tricalcium  phosphate  unites  with 
the  free  phosphoric  acid  and  becomes  replaced  by  water  (HaO), 
thus  forming  both  mono-  and  dicalcium  phosphates,  which  to- 
gether constitute  available  phosphoric  acid.  There  is  no  gypsum 
produced  in  this  reaction,  because  there  is  no  sulfuric  acid 
present.  When  phosphatic  fertilizers  are  to  be  transported  long 
distances,  there  is  much  saving  in  freight  by  using  high  grade 
products,  which  may  contain  as  high  as  40  per  c^nt  'of  available 
phosphoric  acid. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Absorbents,  straw,  mack  and  earth 
as 236,  237 

Acid  soils,  plants  which  are  killed 
by 317 

—  —  plants  which  thrive  upon 318 

Acidity  of  soils,  liming  to  correct. .  .313 
Aeration  of  soils,  need  of 80 

—  —  —  promoted  by  plowing 80 

Agriculture,  the  fundamental  labor 

of 01 

Aikiuan  explains  action  of  gypsum. 254 

—  remarks  of  upon  lime  and  nitrifi- 

cation   229 

Albuminoids,  use  of  by  animal 144 

Alfalfa,  objections  to 347 

Alkali  lands,  result  of  capillarity...  84 

—  —  deep  tillage  on 8.1 

Amendments  to  soil  explained 303 

American  plow,  development  of 59 

Ammonia,  how  it  is  affected  by  va- 
rious substances 238,  239 

—  set  free  by  lime 309 

—  chief  source  of  loss  of  nitrogen 

from  manure 23."> 

—  in  rain-fall 128 

—  in  rain-water 7:i 

Ammonium  sulfate,  injurious  effects 

of 323 

Analyses  of  soils  and  plants,  value 

of 23 

Anderson,  James,  wrote  an  essay  on 

quicklime 304 

—  I^eroy,  test  of  plows  by 98 

Animals,  their  use  modifies  value  of 

excrement 142 


PAOK 

Animals,  voidings  of,  incomplete  re- 
turns to  land 11 

—  and   their  powers  to    assimilate 

food 142 

Apple  orchards,  plant-food  removed 

by 20 

Armsby,  Prof.  H.  P.,  facts  furnished 

by  regarding  horse  manure 160 

Ash  of  plants,  analysis  of  tells  but 

little 22 

—  —  —  constituents    of    found    in 

soils 22 

Ash  wood,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash in 358 

Ashes,   analyses  of 333,  334 

—  hard-wood,  variability  in  Quality  333 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  quoted 62,  248 

Barley,  relative  proportion  of  ele- 
ments iu i:tt! 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Barn  manures,  meaning  of  term 131 

Barnyards,  covered,  advantages  of.  189 

—  covered 189 

—  —  size  of  for  twenty  cows 189 

Meets  produced  on  acid  soils :i2C 

Biernatzki,    analysis     of    manures 

made  by 201 

Bread,  A.  M.,   investigation    of   on 

clovers :t4."> 

Burrill,  T.  1>.,  used  a  wheel  for  plow 

landside 50 

Caldwell,  Prof.  G.  C,  remarks  upou 

land  plaster 327 

California,  use  of  sulky  plow  iu 57 

Calorie,  a  unit  of  heat  and  energy  . .  144 


UH) 


412 


Index 


PAGE 

Canada  thistles,  plowing  under 95 

Capillarity,  brings  plant-food  to 
surface 84 

Carbonaceous  matter  not  a  fertiliz- 
ing element 144 

Catch  crop  should  be  used  on  sandy 
soils 89 

Cavanaugh,  George  W.,  article  on 
nitrification  by 244 

Clay  lands  benefited  by  fall  plow- 
ing   88 

—  soils,  action  of  lime  on 307 

■ coarse  manure  on 211 

—  —  ill   effects  produced   by   sub- 

merging   73 

Clinton,  L.  A.,  article  by  on  home 

mixing  of  fertilizers 289 

Clover  as  a  cover  crop 347 

—  crimson  for  the  south 231 

—  —  in  warm  climate 347 

—  as  a  fallow  plant 352 

—  the  host-plant  of  grasses 366 

—  nodules,  analysis  of 348 

Clovers,  crimson  and  red  in  orchards. 116 

—  amount  of  fertility  in  an  average 

crop 344 

—  beneficial  effects  may  be  physical.346 

—  as  green  manures 342 

—  to  supplement  manures 31,  32 

—  amount  of  nitrogen  stored  up  by  .348 

—  improve  physical  condition  of  soil  343 

—  for  renovating  pastures 349 

—  varieties  which  do  best 346 

Coal-ashes  have  no  value  as  plant- 
food 335 

Corn,  plowing  land  for 70 

Cotton,  analysis  of  seed  and  lint 25 

—  amount  grown  in  U.  S.  in  1890.. . .  25 

—  plant-food  removed  by 25 

—  seed  hull  ashes,  analysis  of 335 

—  areas,  fertilizers  for i:;8 

Cover  crops  highly  beneficial 208 

use  of  in  cotton  belt 138 

likely  to  precede  liming 305 

rye,  wheat,  and  oats  as 348 


PAGE 

(.'overcrops,  use  of 253 

Cow  manure,  decrease  in  value  of 
by  leaching 192 

—  —  losses  when  exposed  to  air 196 

—  giving  milk,  water  drunk  by 195 

—  pea,  use  of  as  green  manure 347 

Cows,  feeding  and  value  of  manure 

from 158,  154 

—  amount    of    manure   and    milk 

produced  by 159 

—  and  calves,  remarks  ou  care  of  in 

winter 204,  205 

Crops,  causes  of  low  yields 32 

Cultivators,  proper  shape  for  teeth .  105 
Deserts,  causes  ox  and  changes  in..  .125 

Denitrification,  explanation  of 248 

Drainage,  benefits  derived  from. 127,  128 

—  surface  by  dead  furrows 72 

—  by  open  furrows 92 

—  and  irrigation 120 

—  increases  power  of  soils  to  hold 

moisture 128 

—  hastens  nitrification 230 

—  surface,  promoted  by  drill  marks  73 

—  —  in  south 93 

—  proper  way  of  laying  out  a  system  129 

—  warms  the  land 127 

Drains,  necessity  of 72 

—  increase  storage  capacity  of  soils.  79 

Drill,  invented  by  Jethro  Tull 38 

Earth  as  an  absorbent  for  manures. 237 

—  dry,  is  a  conserver  of  nitrogen ...  244 

E vener,  a  handy  three-horse 96 

E  veners,  how  to  make 97 

Excrements  from  sheep,  value  of . . .  168 
— amount  of 167 

—  comparative  value  of  from  differ- 

ent an i ma j.s  156 

—  value  modified  by  kind  of  food. . .  145 
use  of  the  word 131 

Fallows,  short,  benefits  of 353,  354 

—  gone  out  of  fashion 70 

—  history  ot 349 

—  promote  nitrification 230 

—  chief  objects  and  methods 351 


Index. 


413 


PAGE 

Fallows,  green  summer  defined 3.">2 

Farm  manures,  meaning  of  term —  132 

Farmer,  a  chat  with 1 

Fertility  may  be  dormant 29 

—  true  meaning  of 9 

Fertilizer  law,  abstract  of  for  differ- 
ent states 266,  267 

—  tags  misleading  and  confusing.  .282 

—  samples  of  tags 284,  285 

Fertilizers,  howproblems  concerning 

application  of  must  be  solved. . .  24 

—  how  to  apply 274 

—  brands  of  in  New  York 263 

-  commercial 260 

—  adapted  to  various  crops 272 

—  value  of  different  elements 1.">1 

—  necessity  of  experimenting 289 

—  use  of  by  farmers 261 

—  growth  of  the  industry 260,  261 

—  •  home  mixing  of 289-296 

—  necessity  for  use  of 270 

—  how  to  know  what  is  needed 134 

—  profitable  in  some  places  not  in 

others  273 

—  why  good  results  do  not  always 

follow  application  of 24 

—  superphosphates,  chemistry  of.  .298 

—  theory  with  reference  to 137 

—  how  their  use  may    impoverish 

the  Boil 270 

—  use  of  in  market-gardening 276 

—  estimating  commercial  value  of .  .277 

—  waste  in  application  of 23 

Fields,  large  ones  most  economical .  95 
Foliage,      necessity      for      keeping 

healthy 100 

Foods,  relative  amounts  of   energy 
contained  in 145 

—  amount  of  fertilizing  elements  of 

returned  in  excrements 143 

—  the  utilization  of  by  animals 144 

Forestry  should  be  encouraged 126 

Fowls,  value  of  excrement  from 174 

Friction,    causes    which    determine 

amount  of , 48 


PA  OF. 

Girard  and  Miintz,  investigations  of 

on  foods  and  manures 195 

Grain  differs  in  composition 22S 

—  crops,  harrowing  of 119 

—  —  inter-cultural  tillage  for 108 

Grasses,  good  practice  as  to  seed- 
ing  106 

Greiner,  T.,  quotation  from  on  home 

mixing  of  fertilizers 2!X> 

Gypsum,  its  action  upon  ammonia.  .238 

—  its  action  on  ammonia 241 

—  its  action  in  stable  and  field. 229,  230 

—  as  a  conserver  of  moisture 329 

—  effect  of  on  sheep  manure 200 

—  amount  of  lime  in 329 

—  does  not  have  the  action  of  lime. 324 

—  use  of  in  preserving  manure 189 

—  one    constituent   of     superphos- 

phate   302 

—  use  of  has  declined 327 

—  decline  in  use  of 254 

—  use  of  in  stables 328 

Hard-pan,  forming  of  in  porous  soils  77 
Harper's   Weekly,  reservoirs  at  the 

head  of  the  Mississippi 124 

Harrow  and  drag,  work  of 103 

Harrowing  grain  crops 118 

—  tools 103 

Harrow,  Acme 105 

—  proper  construction  of 103 

Harrows  on  wheels  are  best 104 

—  should  be  large 104 

—  spring  tooth 105 

Hartwell,  B.  L.,  article  by  upon  acid- 
ity of  upland  soils 313 

Hawaiian  Islands,  plowing  in 72 

Hay,  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Hen  manure,  value  of  per  ton 174 

—  —  fresh,  value  of 176 

—  —  sun-dried,  value  of 175 

Herbert  A.  .compilation  of  tables  by. 180 
Hickory,  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash in 358 

Hilgard,    Prof.    E.    W.,    report    on 
alkali  lauds 84 


414 


Index. 


PAGE 

Hilgard,  Prof.  E.  W.,  remarks  by 
upon  the  alkali  soils 331 

— —  remarks     upon    liming 

land 313,  314,  313 

Holdefleiss  calculates  loss  of  nitro- 
gen   236 

Horse  manure,  loss  of  by  leaching.  .11)1 

—  manures,  study  of 162,  163 

Horses,  amount  of  excrement  from 

nine,  in  one  day 191 

—  amount  of  manure  produced  by, 

and  value  of 163 

Hubener,  Th.,  remarks  upon  humus.317 
Humus  aids  in  conserving  moisture. 113 

—  is  rich  in  nitrogen 258 

—  its  value  in  soil 216 

—  improves  texture  of  soil 61 

—  effect    upon    water-holding    ca- 

pacity of  soil 258 

Husbandry,  Horse  Hoe,  by  Jethrp 

Tull 61 

Immendorff,  H.,  article  by  on  con- 
servation of  nitrogen  in  stable 

manure 233 

Implements  for  surface  tilling 102 

Iron  sulfate,  its  action  on  ammonia.238 

Irrigation  and  drainage 120 

sub-drainage 122 

—  an  engineer's  problem 120 

—  in  humid  climates 121 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  remarks  on  plow  45 

theory  of  plow 45 

Jethro  Tull,  believed  in  horse  hoe 

tillage 11 

Job,  Book  of,  refers  to  the  plow 35 

Johnson,  S.  W.,  quotation  from 315 

Johnston,    Jas.    F.   W.,    quotation 

from 316 

Jointer  valuable  on  sod  land 64 

—  cannot  be  used  on  stony  land 64 

—  and  its  use  on  plows 64,  65 

Jones,  Major  W.  A.,  a  competent 

engineer 123 

Jordan,  W.  H.,  statement  from  as 
to  cost  of  fertilizers 280 


PAGE 

Kainit,  its  action  upon  ammonia -■'■•■> 

Lambs,  value  of  manure  from 170 

Land,  drying  and  warming  of 76 

Lauman,  G.  K.,  translation  by 233 

Leguminous  crops  can  be  made  to 
furnish  nitrogen 226 

—  plants,  use  of  as  cover  crops 138 

— in  south 231 

—  —  uses  of 31 

Lettuce,  yields  of  on  acid  soils.  .325,  326 
Lime,  its  action  on  soils 228 

—  action  of  on  sandy  soils 306 

—  as  a  soil  amendment 303 

—  amount  to  use  per  acre 312 

—  accelerates  ammonia  formation.  .238 

—  sets  free  ammonia  of  manures . . .  309 

—  air-slaked  not  good  for  mortar  or 

land 311 

—  where  likely  beneficial 313 

—  carbonate  of,  impurities  in 304 

—  caustic   or    quicklime,   how   ob- 

tained   303 

—  an  indirect  fertilizer 305 

—  hydrate,  how  formed 303 

—  on  grass  lands,  apply  in  fall 311 

—  and  gypsum  to  set  free  plant- food.252 

—  its  relation  to  nitrification 227 

—  action  of  on  phosphoric  acid  and 

potash 254 

—  and  its  compounds   with   phos- 

phoric acid 298 

—  action  of  on  potash  in  soils 308 

—  on   land  tends  to  prevent  rust, 

smut,  etc 309 

—  promotes  scab  of  potatoes 310 

—  how  to  slake  for  the  land 310 

—  slaking  of  for  plastering 310 

—  slaking  of  increases  weight  and 

bulk 306 

—  its  action  on  clay  soils 307 

—  may  deplete  the  soil 312 

—  beneficial  on  peaty  soils 308 

—  sources  of 303 

—  how  to  spread  on  land 313 

—  first  use  of 304 


Index. 


415 


PAGE 

Lime,  weight  of    per  bushel  when 
fresh  from  kiln 305 

—  does  not  kill  wire-worms,  slugs, 

etc 310 

Limestone  should  be  burned  near 
quarry 306 

—  weight  of  a  ton  of  after  burn- 

ing  305 

Liming  to  correct  acidity  of  soils... 313 

—  soils,  benefits  of 247 

—  in  England,  practice  of 304 

Litmus   paper  as   a   test  for  acid 

soils 314-31C 

Maize  culture,  shallow  earth-mulch 
for 115 

—  relative  proportion  of  elements  in  130 

—  plant-food  removed  by 27 

—  benefited  by  nitrogen 2L- 

--  early  plowing  for 90 

—  plowing  clover  sod  for 90 

—  t  illage  of 102 

—  average  yield  per  acre  of  U.  S.  In 

1889 27 

Mangolds,    relative   proportion    of 
elements  in 136 

—  on  acid  soils 326 

Manure,  time  of  application  of 209 

—  from  calves,  amount  and  value. . .  162 

—  —  cattle,  a  discussion  of 152 

—  value  of  cattle 157,  158 

—  of  cattle,  value  of  when  fed  on 

cotton  waste 1  j7 

—  cow,  value  of  when  kept  under 

different  conditions 100, 101 

—  lien,  value  of  air  dried 170,177 

—  from  hens,  value  of 174, 17.'« 

—  hen,  value  of  fresh 176 

—  from  horses,  amount  and  value 

of 163, 164, 165 

—  horse,  loss  of  by  leaching 191 

—  —  from  livery  stable 166 

—  from  horses,  studies  of 162 

—  illustrations  showing  how  wasted  1S4 

185, 186,  187 

—  exposed  to  air,  losses  in 196 


PAGK 

Manure,   losses    of    in   weight    and 
bulk  when  exposed 199 

—  how  can  the  losses  from  be  re- 

duced  230 

—  prevention  of  loss  of  nitrogen  in .  232 

—  mixed,  value  of  in  covered  barn- 

yard   li»4 

—  value  of  mixed  from  a  covered 

yard 155 

—  mixed,    relative     proportion     of 

elements  in 130 

—  nitrogen  in  conserved  by  straw.  .236 

—  of  pigeons,  value  of 178,  1 79 

—  platforms  or  pits,  use  of 190 

—  preserved  in  box-stalls 21  1 

—  sampling,  accuracy  in  method  194 ,105 

—  shed,  plan  of 204 ,  205,  206 

—  spreaders,  use  of 212 

—  from  swine,  value  of 171,  174 

—  value  of  different  rations 170 

— from     various    farm      ani- 
mals   181, 18-J 

—  of    sheep,  calves   and  pigs  com 

pared 109 

—  waste  of  on  the  farm 202 

—  yards,  covered "-'o  1 

Manures,  maximum  amounts  to  ap- 
ply  210 

—  their  application 20" 

—  heavy    applications   may   do    in- 

jury  20U 

—  application  of  on  clay  laud 211 

—  —  —  sandy  soils '.M'.' 

—  applied  as  a  top  dressing  in  fall. .  147 

—  barn,    amount  of  plant-food   re- 

stored by 31 

—  barn,  relatively  rich  in  nitrogen.   31 

—  kind  of  bedding  used  as  affecting 

value 147 

—  ways  in  which  they  benefit  land   .208 

—  care,   preservation    and    applica- 

tion of 188 

—  rules  for  distribution  of 213 

—  fertilizing  value  of  foods  returned 

in 190.  19: 


416 


Index. 


PAGE 

Manures    may     be    removed    from 
stable  to  field 190 

—  green,  use  of 342 

—  loss  by  exposing 193 

—  meaning  of  term 131 

—  effect  of  upon  soil  moisture 148 

—  relatively  rich  in  nitrogen 132 

—  use  of  gypsum  in  preserving 189 

—  farm,    factors   which   determine 

quality 141 

—  exposed  to  rain  may  be  benefited.  .188 

—  a  convenient  shed  for  storing 203 

—  better  near  surface 91 

—  considerations  respecting  use  of  .132 

—  waste  in  use  of 211 

—  how  waste  may  be  prevented 202 

—  values  beside  fertilizing 149 

—  conditions  which  modify  value  of.140 

—  the  waste  of 183 

Manuring  of  land,  conclusions  re- 
specting  139 

Marl,  analyses  of 337, 338 

Mayer,  A.,  remarks  upon  sour  soils.316 
Meadow  land,  mulch  of  fine  manure 

for 110 

Mississippi  river,  holding  back  the 

headwaters  of 123 

Moisture,  amount  soils  may  contain  78 

—  capacity  of  soils  to  hold 77 

—  —  —  soil,  how  increased 109 

—  conservation  of 108 

—  conserved  by  mulches Ill 

—  problem    more  important    than 

fertilizers 138 

—  importance  of  for  plants 108, 109 

—  effects  of  plowing  on 72 

—  effect  of  hard  and  soft  surface  soil 

upon 85 

—  in  soils,  how  brought  to  surface. .  70 

—  holding    capacity    of    soils    in- 

creased by  deep  tillage 77,  78 

Muck  as  an  absorbent  for  manure.  .236 

—  analyses  of 338 

Mulch  of  earth  conserves  moisture.  101 

—  for  conserving  moisture 109 


PAG* 

Mulch  of  vegetable  matter 87 

Mulder,  remarks  upon  litmus  paper.316 
Mtintz  and  Girard,  investigation  of 
on  foods  and  manures IM 

—  —  —  experiments  of  to  determine 

loss  of  nitrogen •-'::."> 

—  —  —  refer  to  acid  soils 314 

—  —  —  experiments  with  sulfate  of 

iron  on  holding  ammonia 243 

Newbold,  Chas.,  first  American  cast- 
iron  plow  made  by 46 

Xew  Jersey,  plowing  in 77 

—  —  semi-desert     portions     made 

productive 10 

Nitrates,  what  they  are 245 

Nitric  acid,  how  obtained  by  plants. 245 
Nitrification,    conditions    favorable 

for 24C 

—  active  in  dark 82 

—  hastened  by  drainage •-'::" 

—  explanation  of 244 

—  promoted  by  fallows 230 

—  relation  of  lime  to 227 

—  aided  by  plowing 82 

—  how  promoted 82 

—  promoted  by  plowing 81 

—  promoted  by  tillage 215 

—  usually  too  rapid  In  light  soils. .  .307 

—  active  in  the  south 230 

Nitrogen,  abundance  of,  how  indi- 
cated  214 

—  frequent  light  applications  most 

economical 20 

—  beneficial  results  from  use  of  not 

always  apparent 232 

—  proportion     of    in    some    farm 

crops 136 

—  danger  from  too  much 82 

—  on  forage  crops 210 

—  how  to  provide  on  the  faun.  .226,  227 

—  secured  from  manures  by  feeding 

albuminous  foods 151 

—  added     to    soil    by    leguminous 

plants 151 

—  famished  by  leguminous  crops.. 226 


Index. 


417 


PAGE     | 

Nitrogen     cheaply      obtained      by 

leguminous  plants 264    , 

—  losses  of,  when  and  where  they 

occur 235 

—  how    to    prevent   its    loss    from 

manure 232 

—  promotes  leaf  growth 224    ' 

—  amount  brought  down  by  rain- 

fall   31 

—  how  best  for  farmer  to  secure  for 

plants  151 

—  supply  of  from  rain  and  air. .  132, 133 

—  may  be  too  abundant  in  soil 217 

—  amount  of  in  soil 256 

soils 18 

—  in  manure  saved  by  straw 236 

—  how  its  loss  is  affected  by  use  of 

sulfate  of  iron  and  gypsum 240 

—  made  available  by  tillage 82 

—  amount  removed  by  wheat 257 

—  application  of  to  wheat 274 

Oak,   white,    phosphoric    acid    and 

potash  in 358 

Oats,  relative  proportion  of  elements 
in 136 

—  and  fungous  diseases 8!l 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

Orchards,    apple,     plant-food      re- 
moved by 26 

—  cover  crops  in 116 

—  earth-mulch  for 115,  116 

Pasture,  how  to  improve 110 

—  renovation  of  by  clovers 34!) 

—  and  meadows,  plants  on Ill 

Peacock,   David,  improved  plow  in 

1807 46 

Peat,    swamp   mud,    etc.,    analyses 

of 330,  337 

Percolation  assisted  by  plowing 73 

Phosphoric     acid,     dicalcium     ex- 
plained  299 

—  —  proportion  of  in  some    farm 

crops 136 

where  found 299 

—  —  insoluble,  value  of 287 

BB 


PAOH 

Phosphoric     acid,    insoluble,     how 

changed  to  soluble 300 

monocalcium  explained 300 

amount  of  in  soils 18 

does  not  leach  out  of  soil 20 

—  —  reverted  explained 301 

supply  of 249 

tricalcium  explained 299 

and  potash,  effect  of  on  fruit- 
age  217 

—  compounds  it  forms  with  lime. .  .298 
Pickering,  Timothy,  form  of  mold- 
board  advocated 47 

Pierce,  David,  improved  the  mold- 
board  of  plows 49 

Pig  manure,  value  of  per  year 172 

value   of   per    year    on     dif- 
ferent rations 173 

Pigeon  manure,  value  of 179 

Pine,  old-field,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  in 358 

—  straw  as  bedding 147 

Plankcrs,  use  of 103 

Plant  analysis  reveals  but  little 20 

—  -food  may  be  too  abundant 22,  23 

—  —  conditions  determining  avail- 

ability     19 

extraneous  sources  of 29 

—  —  amount  removed  by  wheat ....  '-'1 
Plants,  food  required  by 20 

—  formation  of  roots  of 83 

Plow,  American,  form  taken  by 59 

—  Berkshire,  in  England,  in  1730...  38 

—  cast-iron,  modelled  by  Col.  John 

Smith 46 

—  improvements  in  cast-iron 48 

—  draft  increased  by  colters 41 

—  requisites  for  further  devel'meut.  59 

—  definition  of  terms  relatiug  to. ...  :t4 

Bridle :t4 

Colter  or  Cutter 34 

l^ock-colter 34 

hand-side 34 

Share,  or  Point 34 

Jointer,  or  Skiin  Plow 34 


418 


Index. 


PAGE 

Plow,  easy  draft  vs.  efficiency 47 

—  development  of  in  America 44 

—  development  of  in  Old  World 34 

—  a  type  of  the  early 35 

—  East  Indian  type  of 35 

—  East  Lothian  type  of 40 

—  East  Lothian  type 41 

■ _  Egyptian  type  of 3C 

—  Eleventh  Century  type 3C 

—  English,  of  Eleventh  Century....  37 

—  the  evolution  of 34 

—  used  in  parts  of  France 37 

—  loss  by  friction 41 

—  weight  of,  friction  due  to 64 

—  glass 54 

—  fundamental  idea  of  from  Hol- 

land    38 

—  used  in  Holland   in   Eighteenth 

Century 38 

—  the  ideal 58 

—  improved   by  David  Peacock  in 

1807 46 

—  improved  by  Witherson  &  Pierce 

in  1839 49 

—  invented  by  Daniel  Webster 50 

—  land-side,  a    wheel,  invented   by 

Burrill 50 

—  Midlothian  type  of 42 

—  modifications  of  in  recent  years..  48 

—  economy  in  bold  moldboard 42 

~  moldboards  hardened  in  oil 55 

—  resistance  of  moldboard 48 

—  steel  moldboard  on 54 

—  effort  to  secure  one  that  would 

scour 54 

—  shallow  in  spring 90 

—  steel  prairie  stubble 57 

—  use  of  sulky  in  California 57 

—  sulky,  use  of 93 

—  theory  of  construction 47 

—  for  opening  trenches 51 

—  trial  at  Utica,  result  of 98 

—  wood-beam 58 

—  work  accomplished  by  a  good 71 

Plowing,  aeration  promoted  by 80 


PACK 

Plowing  deep,  benefits  of 74 

when  desirable 90 

may  be  a  positive  injury 75 

—  depths    of    in    spring    and     in 

autumn 7:i 

—  energy  used  in  severing  the  fur- 

row-slice    64 

—  energy  used  in  different  parts  of 

the  operation 64 

—  English  idea  of 42 

—  fall,  beneficial 65 

—  in  fall  should  be  done  early 89 

—  to  bring  fertility  to  the  surface..  84 

—  narrow  furrow  to  be  avoided 86 

—  methods  of   laying   the  furrow- 

slice 66 

—  wide  furrows  best 98 

—  in  Hawaiian  Islands 72 

—  with  three  horses,  line  arrange- 

ment   94 

—  with  six  horses 95 

—  how  to  do  it 90 

—  usually  imperfectly  performed...  63 

—  importance  of  doing  well 63 

—  physical  condition  improved  by . .  82 

—  when   land    is    too   dry    injuri- 

ous   90 

—  clay  lands  in  the  fall 88 

—  light  lands 93 

—  sandy  and  friable  lands 67 

—  st ill. Me  land  should  be  inverted . .  69 

—  difference  between  English  and 

American  methods 42 

—  lil>erates  mineral  matter 82 

—  effects  of  on  moisture 72 

—  effects  on  soil  moisture 7."> 

—  in  New  J  ersey 77 

—  promotes  nitrification 81,  82 

—  increases  area  of  nourishment ...  86 

—  chief  object  of 42 

—  to  destroy  plants 63 

—  method  of  on  prairies 52 

—  reasons  for 62,  63 

—  general  remarks  on 62 

—  specific  results  of 72 


Index. 


419 


PAHF.    , 

Plowing  clay  soils 73    I 

in  the  fall 67    | 

—  —  —  proper  way .'109 

—  porous  soils 77    j 

—  to  pulverize  the  soil 63 

—  sandy  soils 307    I 

—  spring  or  fall 88 

—  subsoil 51 

—  to  improve  texture  of  soil 61    I 

—  how  to  strike  out  lands 91 

—  team  best  adapted  for 94 

—  strong  teams  needed  for 71 

—  trench 51 

—  to  bury  trash 86 

--    when  to  «io  it 87 

—  —  not  to  do  it 90 

Flows,    case-hardening  or   chilling 

process  discovered  in  1803 43 

improved 4.'! 

—  prejudice  to  cast-iron 4(i 

—  colter  and  its  uses  on 68 

—  draft  of 98 

—  line  of  draft  in 95 

Kuglish,  imperfect  iti  principle..  4'J 

—  gang,  introduction  of 56 

use  oi 105 

—  jointer,  uses  oi 64 

—  moldboard  should  heboid 64 

—  moldboards    chilled    or    carbon- 

ized    56 

—  moldboard  uses   10   per  cent    of 

the  energy 63 

moldboards,    method     now    em- 
ployed in  hardening 56 

—  prairie,  description  of 52 

—  for  sod  and  for  stubble 69 

—  sulky,  advantages  of 57 

introduction  of 56 

—  trench,  made  in  1860 50 

Potash,    amount   carried    in    some 

soils 30 

of  in  soils IN 

—  does  not  leach  out  of  soil 20 

—  and  phosphoric  acid,  effect  of  on 

fruitage 217 


PAO« 

Fotash,  proportion   of   in   manures 
and  some  farm  crops 136 

—  supply  of 249 

Potatoes,    relative     proportion     of 

elements  in 136 

—  deep  feeding  plants 69 

—  deep  earth-mulch  for 115 

—  cause  of  poor  quality 118 

—  scab  promoted  by  lime 310 

gypsum  increases  scab  upon 328 

—  experiments  in  tillage  at  Cornell 

University 219,  222 

—  average  yield   in  New  York  for 

1889 251 

Production,   elements    which    enter 
into 1! 

—  increased  by  superior  tillage 19 

Productivity     not     a     question    of 

plant-food 10 

Proteids,  use  of  by  animal 144 

Puddling  of  soils,  how  prevented 73 

Rainfall,      amount      of       nitrogen 

brought  down  by 31 

—  from  April  to  October  in  1895  and 

1896 222 

Ransome,  Robert,  discovered  method 

of  case-hardening  plows 43 

made  plow-shares  of  cast-iron 

in  1785 43 

Ration,  narrow  one  is  undesirable. .  145 

Rations,  manurial  value  of 170 

Reservoirs  for  holding  back  waters.  126 

Roller,  use  of 102 

Root-pruning  not  usually  desirable.  86 
Rotation  lessens  insect  enemies 368 

—  may  Increase  production 363 

—  distributes  the  work  of  the  year. 369 
-  a  three  years' 370 

—  a  good  four  years' 367,  368 

Rotations,  specific  directions  upon. .361 

—  economize  plant  food 366 

—  may  increase  fertility 372 

—  importance  of 356,  357 

—  long,  where  desirable 371,  372 

—  short,  where  desirable 372 


420 


Index. 


PAGE 

Ruffin  speaks  of  the  pine 318 

Rye  as  a  cover  crop 116 

Salt,     application    of     to     manure 
heaps 340 

—  and  conservation  of  moisture 340 

—  and    gypsum    as    conservers    of 

moisture 332 

—  action  of  on  soils 339,  340 

—  its  action  on  soils 254 

—  and  wire-worms 340 

Sanborn,  J.  W.,  test  of  plows  by 98 

Sandy  soils,  action  of  lime  on 306 

ho w  to  plow 307 

methods  of  treatment 114 

Schiffer,  J.   R.,  experiment  by  on 

preserving  manure 200 

Schultz-Lupitz,  remarks  upon  sour, 

sandy  soils 316 

refers  to  sour  soils 314 

Seeding  to  grass  and  clover,  prac- 
tice of 106 

Seeds,  small  require  shallow  cover..  99 

Shavings  used  as  bedding 147 

Sheep  manure,  losses  in  when  ex- 
posed to  air 196 

—  excrements,  discussion  of 167 

Sheldon,  remarks  of  on  manures..  .199 
Smith,  Col.  John,  modelled  a  cast- 
iron  plow 46 

Snyder,  Prof.,  remarks  by  on  soils 

and  gypsum 256.  330 

Sodium  carbonate  on  acid  soils 326 

Soil  analysis  shows  but  little 139 

—  demands  by  some  crops 25 

—  in  Red  River  Valley 256 

—  necessity  for  fining  underneath. .  1 13 

—  native  plant-food  in 11 

—  gravelly,  composition  of 17 

—  inverting  of  m;iy  injure  succeed- 

ing crops 68 

—  moisture  effects  of  plowing  on . . .  72 

—  preparation  of   for  deep-feeding 

plants 69 

—  storage  capacity  of 77 

—  weight  of  an  acre  of  1  foot  deep.  ,256 


PAOl 
Soils,  acid,  liming  to  correct 313 

—  table  showing  analyses  of 12-15 

—  clay,  application  of  manures  on.  .211 

—  clay  require  skill  in  treatment. . .  30 

—  physical  conditions  important...  87 

—  good  physical  conditions    neces- 

sary   83 

—  how  to  fine  economically 40 

—  amount  of  plant-food  in 16 

—  necessity  for  thorough  prepara- 

tion    70 

—  sandy,  action  of  lime  on 306 

application  of  manures  on 212 

methods  of  treatment 114 

—  texture   of     improved    in   three 

ways 61 

—  light  and  sandy  respond  quickly 

to  tillage 10 

—  weathering  of 70 

—  weight  of  per  acre  one  foot  deep.  18 

an  acre  one  foot  deep 77 

Spring  plowing  best  done  early 89 

Spring-toothed  implements,  use  of.  .101 
Storer,  quotation  from 315 

—  need  of  nitrogen  set  forth  by 223 

Straw,  manurial  value  of 167 

—  helps    to    conserve    nitrogen    in 

manure 236 

Stutzer,  A.,  remarks  upon  acid  soils. 316 
Subsoil,   how    to  utilize  plant-food 

in U  266,330 

—  plant-food  in 18 

Subsoiling  largely  gone  out  of  prac- 
tice    74 

Superphosphate,    its    action    upon 

ammonia 239 

Superphosphates,  chemistry  of 298 

Swine,    composition    of    excrement 
from  different  rations 172 

—  value  of  excrements  from  ...171-174 
Thomas  slag,   accelerates  ammonia 

formation 238 

Tillage,  deep   and   shallow,    where 
best 100 

—  English  and  American  methods..  42 


Index. 


421 


PAGE 

Tillage  to  make  mineral  food  avail- 
able  252 

—  multiplies  rootlets 85 

—  surface,  object  of 99 

may  be  overdone 115 

—  value  of  shown  by  Tull  in  1733. . .  61 

—  to  destroy  weeds  and  grass 101 

—  implements  for  surface 102 

Tucker,    J.    M.,    article    by    upon 

"Acidity  of  Upland  Soils  " 313 

Tull,  .lethro,  observations  upon  till- 
age    59,  60 

principles  laid  down  by 39 

—  —  recommended    the    Berkshire 

plow 38 

believed  in  horse-hoe  tillage..  11 

showed     value   of    tillage   in 

1733 61 

Tull's  theory  as  to    value  of    till- 
age    61 

Tull,  Jethro,  work  of 38 

I'nderdrains,  necessity  of 72 

—  Improve  texture  of  soil 61 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  quotation  from  ..286 
Vegetable  matter,  benefits  of  plow- 
ing tinder 87 

Voelcker.   A.,    test   for   noil    aeid- 
itf 314 


PAGI 

Voelcker,  A.,  remarks  by  on  testing 
soils  with  litmus  paper 316 

Water,  percolation  of  through  soils.  73 

Webster,  Daniel,  description  of  plow 
invented  by 50 

Weeds,  how  to  clear  ground  of 362 

—  when  to  destroy 101 

—  perennial,  how  eradicated lol 

Wheat,  nitrogen  removed  by 257 

—  fertility     removed     by    average 

crop 346 

—  crop,  phosphoric  acid  removed  by  22 

—  plant-food  removed  by 28 

used  by 135 

—  amount    of   plant-food    removed 

by 21 

—  winter,  surface  feeder  in  fall 83 

—  average  yield  for  1890  in  U.  S —  20 
Wheeler,     Prof.     H.    J.,    quotation 

from  on  acid  soils 320 

article  by  upon  "  Acidity 

of  Upland  Soils  " 313 

Wire-worms,  late  fall  plowing  kills 

many 89 

Witherow,    Samuel,   improved    the 

moldboard  of  plows 49 

Voung,   Arthur,   remarks    on  earlv 

iron  plow 43 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
HORTICULTURE 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Of  Cornell  University,  assisted  by  WILHELM  MILLER,  and  many  Expert 
Cultivators  and  Botanists 

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all  the  species  of  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers  and  orna- 
mental plants  known  to  be  in  the  market  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  "It  has  the  unique  distinction  of 
presenting  for  the  first  time,  in  a  carefully  arranged 
and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best  knowledge  of  the 
best  specialists  in  America  upon  gardening,  fruit-grow- 
ing, vegetable  culture,  forestry,  and  the  like,  as  well  as 
exact  botanical  information.  .  .  .  The  contributors 
are  eminent  cultivators  or  specialists,  and  the  arrange- 
ment is  very  systematic,  clear  and  convenient  for  ready 
reference." 

"We  have  here  a  work  which  every  ambitious  gardener  will  wish  to  place 
on  his  shelf  beside  his  Nicholson  and  his  Loudon,  and  for  such  users  of  it  a  too 
advanced  nomenclature  would  have  been  confusing  to  the  last  degree.  With  the 
safe  names  here  given  there  is  little  liability  to  serious  perplexity.  There  is  a 
growing  impatience  with  much  of  the  controversy  concerning  revision  of  names 
of'Organisms,  whether  of  plants  or  animals.  Those  investigators  who  are  busied 
with  the  ecological  aspects  of  organisms,  and  nlso  those  who  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  application  of  plants  to  the  arts  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  so  on, 
care  for  the  names  of  organisms  under  examination  only  so  far  as  these  aid  in 
recognition  and  identification.  To  introduce  unnecessary  confusion  is  a  serious 
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treatment  and  editing,  the  Cyelopedin  appears  to  be  emphatically  useful:  ...  a 
work  worthy  of  ranking  by  the  side  of  the  Century  Dictionary."—  Th»  Nation. 

This  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and  terms  and  further 
information  may  be  had  of  the  publishers. 


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BOOKS*  ON   AGRICULTURE,  continued 
On  Fruit-growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery-Boot SI  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-growing 1  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning-Book 1  50  net 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 1  50  net 

On  the  Care  of  Live  Stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 1  50  net 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 1  50  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse 1  25  net 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry 1  25  net 

On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products 1  50  net 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk 1  25  net 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry 1  00  net 

W.   D.    Frost's    Laboratory  Guide   in   Elementary 

Bacteriology 1  60  net 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy 1  00  net 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer 1  25  net 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics 1  25  net 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook   .   .  1  25  net 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  .   .  1  25  net 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization 1  25  net 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.  Includes  a  chapter  on  Farming. 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self-Supporting  Home      ...  1  75  net 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty 1  75  net 

On  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture: 
Vol.  1.  Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  II.    Farm  Crops. 
Vol.  III.    Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  IV.    The  Farm  and  the  Community. 

Price  of  sets:  Cloth,  $20  net;  half-morocco,  $32  net. 


For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above, 
address  the  publishers 

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LESSONS  WITH  PLANTS 

Suggestions  for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of  the 
Common  Forms  of  Vegetation 

By   L.  H.  BAILEY 

With  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S.  HOLDSWORTH,  of  the 
Agricultural  College  of  Michigan 

SEVENTH  BDITION-491  PAGES-446  ILLUSTRATI0NS-12M0- 
CLOTH— $1.10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The  old 
way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory,  was  to 
classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots,  and  whole 
plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens,  forgetting  that 
each  had  its  own  story  of  growth  and  development, 
struggle  and  success,  to  tell.  Nothing  stifles  a  natural 
love  for  plants  more  effectually  than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  growing 
thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living  creature, 
whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the  story  of  any 
favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants"  is  a  book  of 
stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for  we  can  see  each 
chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the  trouble  to  look  at  the 
actors. 

"I  have  spent  some  time  in  most  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the  longer 
I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but  eminently  sug- 
gestive. I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to  open  the  eyes  of  the 
student— whether  pupil  or  teacher— to  the  wealth  of  meaning  contained  In  simple 
plant  forms.  Above  all  else.  It  seems  to  be  full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to 
learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they  may  talk  to  him."— Darwin  L.  Bardwell. 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Binghamton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide  to  young  students  of  plant  life. 
it  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools,  and  comes  at  an  op- 
portune time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and  eagerly  sought."— Professor 
V.  M.  Spat.ding.  Univemity  of  Michigan. 

FIRST  LESSONS  WITH   PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  above 

117  PAGES-116  ILLUSTRATIONS— 40  CENTS  NET 


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NEW  BOOKS    FOR    THE   FARM    LIBRARY 
MR.  BOLTON    HALL'S 

Three  Acres  and  Liberty 

The  author  discusses  the  possibilities  of  an  acre;  where  to  find 
idle  land;  how  to  select  it,  clear  and  cultivate  it;  the  results 
to  be  expected;  what  an  acre  may  produce;  methods,  tools, 
equipment,  capital,  hotbeds  and  greenhouses;  other  uses  of 
land;  flowers;  poultry  and  novel  live  stock;  and  nearly  every 
other  imaginable  topic  of  intensive  farming  in  clear,  definite 
statements  which  are  easily  verified.  It  is  a  practical  book 
from  cover  to  cover.     Cioth>   illustrated.   $1.75  net,  by  mail,  $1.88. 

By   ALLEN    FRENCH 

A  Book  of  Vegetables  and  Garden  Herbs 

A  Practical  Handbook  and  Planting  Table  for  the  Home  Garden 
This  book  gives  complete  directions  for  growing  all  vege- 
tables cultivable  in  the  climate  of  the  northern  United  States. 
Besides  a  description  of  each  plant,  its  habit,  value,  and  use, 
the  book  contains  detailed  cultural  directions,  covering  the 
soil,  planning  distances,  times  for  sowing,  thinning  and  trans- 
planting, fertilizing,  picking,  winter  protection,  renewal, 
storage,  and  management  of  diseases  and  posts. 

Cloth.     12mo.    Illustrated.    $1.75  net,  by  mail,  $1.88. 

By   KATE   V.  ST.  MAUR 

A  Self-supporting  Home 

"En"!!  chapter  's  the  detailed  account  of  all  the  work  necessary  for  one 
month  — In  the  vegetable  garden,  among  the  small  fruits,  with  the  fowls, 
guineas,  rabbits,  caries,  and  in  every  branch  of  husbandry  to  be  met  with  on 
the  small  farm."— Louisville  Courier- Journal. 

Cloth.  12mo.     Fully  illustrated  from  photographs. 
$1.75  net,  by  mail,  $1.88. 

By  W.  S.  HARWOOD 

The  New  Earth 

A  Recital  of  the  Triumphs  of  Modern  Agriculture  in  America. 
Mr.  Harwood  shows  in  a  very  entertaining  way  the  remark- 
able progress  which  has  been  made  during  the  past  two  gen- 
erations along  all  the  lines  which  hiive  their  focal  point  in 
the  earth.  Cloth.     12mo.    Illustrated.    $1.75  net,  by  mail,  1.88. 

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FOR  THE  STUDENT  OF  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 

By  HARRY   SNYDER,  B.S. 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  University  of  Minnesota,  and  Chemist 
of  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

The  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life 

Illustrated.     Cloth.     12mo.    406  pages.    $1.25;  by  mail,  $1.35. 

"The  language  is,  as  it  should  be,  plain  and  simple,  free  from  all  needless 
technicality,  and  the  story  thus  told  is  of  absorbing  interest  to  every  one, 
man  or  woman,  boy  or  girl,  who  takes  an  intelligent  interest  in  farm  life." 
—The  New  England  Farmer. 

"Although  the  book  is  highly  technical,  it  is  put  in  popular  form  and  mad« 
comprehensible  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer;  it  deals  largely  with 
those  questions  which  arise  in  his  experience,  and  will  prove  an  invaluable 
aid  in  countless  directions." — The  Farmer's  Voice. 

Dairy  Chemistry 

Illustrated.    190  pages.    $1  net ;  by  mail,  $1.10. 

"The  book  is  a  valuable  one  which  any  dairy  farmer,  or,  indeed,  any  one 
handling  stock,  may  read  with  profit."— Rural  New  Yorker. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 

Third  Edition.    Illustrated.    $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.38 

A  book  which  presents  in  a  concise  form  the  principles  of  soil  fer- 
tility and  discusses  all  of  the  topics  relating  to  soils  as  outlined  by 
the  Committee  on  Methods  of  Teaching  Agriculture.  It  contains 
350  pages,  with  illustrations,  and  treats  of  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, such  as  Physical  Properties  of  Soils;  Geological  Formation, 
etc.;  Nitrogen  of  the  Soil  and  Air;  Farm  Manures;  Commercial 
Fertilizers,  several  chapters;  Rotation  of  Crops;  Preparation  of 
Soil  for  Crops,  etc. 


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BOTANY 

An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools 

By   L.  H.  BAILEY 

TWELFTH  BDITION-431  PAGES-500  ILLUSTRATI0NS-$1 .  10  NET 

"This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  'Lessons  With 
Plants '  was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
teacher."  This  is  the  opening  sentence  of  the  preface, 
showing  that  the  book  is  a  companion  to  "Lessons 
With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a  standard 
teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text- book  yet  made.  The  illustra- 
tions illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and 
unnatural  Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book 
disparages  mere  laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the 
pupil  is  taught  to  see  things  as  they  grow  and  behave. 
The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book  will  understand 
the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day  by  day.  It 
is  a  revolt  from  the  dry-as-dust  teaching  of  botany.  It 
cares  little  for  science  for  science's  sake,  but  its  point 
of  view  is  nature -study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is 
divided  into  four  parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used 
in  the  school:  the  plant  itself;  the  plant  in  its  environ- 
ment; histology,  or  the  minute  structure  of  plants;  the 
kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  descriptions  of  300 
common  species).  The  introduction  contains  advice  to 
teachers. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  textbook. "-Educational  IUvuv 

" It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  method*."—  The  Dial. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  And  a  better  manual  for  school*  or  for  individual  nse.' 
The  Outlook. 


THE  MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
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CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
AGRICULTURE 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Of  Cornel]  University,  Editor  of  "Cyclopedia  c^  American  Horticulture,* 
Author  of  "Plant  Breeding,"  "Principles  of  Agriculture,"  etc. 

WITH  100  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  AND  MORE  THAN  2,000  ILLUS- 
TRATIONS IN  THE  TEXT -FOUR  VOLUMES  — THE  SET  • 
CLOTH,  $20  NET-HALF-MOROCCO.  $32  NET-CARRIAGE  EXTRA 

Volume  I— Farms 

The  Agricultural   Regions  — The   Projecting  of  a  Farm  — The  Soil 
Environment  — The  Atmosphere  Environment. 

Volume  II  —Crops 

The  Plant  and  Its  Relations— The  Manufacture  of  Crop  Products- 
North  American  Field  Crops. 

Volume  III— Animals 

The  Animal  and  Its  Relations  — The  Manufacture  of  Animal  Prod- 
ucts—North American  Farm  Animals. 

Volume  IV— The  Farm  and  the  Community 

Economics  —  Social    Questions  —  Organizations  —  History  —  Liter* 
ture,  etc. 

"Indispensable  to  public  and  reference  libraries  .  .  .  readily  compreheti. 
eible  to  any  person  of  average  education." — The  Nation. 
"The  completest  existing  thesaurus  of  up-to-date  facts  and  opinions  oi. 
modern  agricultural  methods.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  years  mnst  past 
before  it  can  be  surpassed  in  comprehensiveness,  accuracy,  practical  value 
and  mechanical  excellence.  It  ought  to  be  in  every  library  in  the  country.' 
— Reeord  Herald,  Chicago. 


Published  by 

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THE  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  Of  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


IX  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
I     III     I    I 


A     001  096  054     o 


